Raman Spectroscopy of Graphene and Related Materials

Raman spectroscopy is a non-destructive optical technique that probes inelastic scattering of light by lattice vibrations in carbonaceous materials. In graphene, its two-dimensional hexagonal lattice produces distinct Raman signatures: the G band near 1580 cm⁻¹ from in-plane optical phonons and the 2D band around 2700 cm⁻¹ arising from a double-resonant process sensitive to electronic band structure. Variations in peak positions, linewidths and intensities reveal local strain, doping levels, layer number and defect density. This sensitivity makes Raman analysis a cornerstone for characterising graphene quality, assessing heterostructure interfaces and guiding the synthesis of van der Waals assemblies. Recent methodological advances have extended its reach to exciton–phonon interactions, in situ electrochemical monitoring and statistical mapping of layer distributions in bulk-produced films. By linking optical phonon behaviour to electronic properties, Raman spectroscopy continues to illuminate fundamental physics in two-dimensional and related carbon materials and to support applications in nanoelectronics, optoelectronics and sensing.

Research from Nature Portfolio

Recent studies have demonstrated how confocal Raman mapping of the 2D band width can quantify nanometre-scale strain fluctuations in supported graphene, providing a reliable predictor of carrier mobility in field-effect devices. Investigations into 2D band splitting in graphene encapsulated in hexagonal boron nitride have elucidated how charge screening alters phonon dispersions, revealing symmetry-dependent lifting of the K-point anomaly and enabling optical determination of local charge density with high precision. Complementary work has employed controlled chemical intercalation to establish Raman-based protocols for assessing layer distributions in exfoliated graphene, offering an efficient route to estimate flake thickness and single-layer content in bulk-produced samples.

Raman Spectroscopy of Graphene and Related Materials publication trend

The graph below shows the total number of articles in raman spectroscopy of graphene and related materials across all publications each year (not limited to Nature Index journals).

Technical terms

Raman spectroscopy: An optical scattering technique detecting shifts in photon energy due to interactions with phonons.

Phonon: A quantised lattice vibration in a crystalline solid.

G band: Raman feature near 1580 cm⁻¹ arising from in-plane optical phonons in graphene.

2D band: Second-order Raman peak around 2700 cm⁻¹ sensitive to electronic band dispersion and layer stacking.

Double resonance: A Raman mechanism involving real electronic transitions that enhance non-zone-centre phonon modes.

Kohn anomaly: An abrupt softening or kink in phonon dispersion due to strong electron–phonon coupling at a specific momentum.

Electron–phonon coupling: Interaction between charge carriers and lattice vibrations that influences phonon energies and lifetimes.

References

1. Raman spectroscopy as probe of nanometre-scale strain variations in graphene. Nature Communications (2015).
2. Double resonance Raman spectroscopy of single-wall carbon nanotubes. New Journal of Physics (2003).
3. Anomaly of Optical Phonon in Monolayer Graphene. Journal of the Physical Society of Japan (2006).
4. Ab Initio Approach to Second-order Resonant Raman Scattering Including Exciton-Phonon Interaction. Scientific Reports (2017).
5. 2D Raman band splitting in graphene: Charge screening and lifting of the K-point Kohn anomaly. Scientific Reports (2017).
6. In-situ Raman spectroscopy to elucidate the influence of adsorption in graphene electrochemistry. Scientific Reports (2017).
7. Role of electronic excitations in magneto-Raman spectra of graphene. New Journal of Physics (2012).