Seawater Battery Technologies for Energy Storage Systems
Summary
Seawater batteries represent an emerging class of energy storage systems that leverage the abundance of sodium ions in seawater as the electroactive species in the cathode compartment. Unlike traditional lithium-ion batteries, these systems employ an open-cathode architecture in which natural or synthetic seawater circulates to maintain a continuous supply of sodium ions during charge and discharge. This design confers several advantages: low cost due to plentiful feedstock, inherent safety stemming from aqueous electrolytes, and environmental compatibility by utilising a renewable resource. Given the global imperative to integrate variable renewable generation, seawater batteries offer a decarbonised, cost-effective alternative for grid and off-grid storage, particularly in coastal and island communities. Recent advances have focused on optimising electrode materials, membrane technologies and cell configurations to enhance energy density, cycle life and voltage efficiency. The anode typically comprises sodium metal or alternative host materials such as hard carbon composites, engineered to mitigate irreversible capacity loss. Meanwhile, cathode innovations include porous carbonaceous structures and functionalised polymer membranes designed to facilitate ion transport and suppress side reactions. Modular assembly techniques have also been developed to scale individual cells into higher-voltage configurations suitable for marine applications, off-grid systems and integration with renewable generation. Although challenges remain—particularly membrane stability, electrode degradation and lower operating voltages compared to lithium systems—the potential for dual-use in desalination and hydrogen storage further broadens the appeal of seawater batteries in sustainable energy infrastructures.
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Seawater Battery Technologies for Energy Storage Systems publication trend
The graph below shows the total number of articles in seawater battery technologies for energy storage systems across all publications each year (not limited to Nature Index journals).
Technical terms
Coulombic efficiency: The ratio of the net charge delivered during discharge to the charge supplied during charging, indicating coulombic losses in a battery cycle.
Ion intercalation/deintercalation: The reversible insertion and removal of ions into a host electrode material’s crystal lattice during charge and discharge.
Faradaic efficiency: The fraction of charge that contributes to the desired electrochemical reaction, often used in evaluating hydrogen evolution and storage processes.
Cycle life: The number of complete charge–discharge cycles a battery can undergo before its capacity falls below a specified threshold.
References
- Dual‐Use of Seawater Batteries for Energy Storage and Water Desalination. Small (2022).
- Development of Rechargeable Seawater Battery Module. Journal of The Electrochemical Society (2022).
- Alkali-Metal-Mediated Reversible Chemical Hydrogen Storage Using Seawater. JACS Au (2021).
- Mechanisms elucidation of secondary seawater batteries: From ion migration to conversion for sustainable energy storage. Chemical Engineering Journal (2024).
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