Tissue Engineering Scaffolds Fabrication and Characterization

Tissue engineering scaffolds are three-dimensional matrices designed to support cell adhesion, proliferation and differentiation while providing mechanical stability and guiding the formation of new tissue. Fabrication techniques range from solvent-free methods and supercritical fluid foaming to porogen leaching and additive manufacturing. Each method aims to control pore size, porosity, interconnectivity and surface chemistry to emulate the hierarchical architecture of native extracellular matrices. Characterization encompasses morphological analyses (electron and X-ray tomography), mechanical testing (compressive and tensile moduli), degradation studies and in vitro biological assays. Advances in polymer chemistry, composite materials and processing technologies have led to multifunctional scaffolds that combine tailored mechanical properties with bioactive cues for bone, cartilage and soft-tissue repair.

Research from Nature Portfolio

Recent studies have demonstrated a novel poly(vinyl alcohol)/poly(ethylene glycol) scaffold fabricated via supercritical fluid foaming, achieving a bimodal open-celled network that mimics natural tissue architecture. Detailed spectroscopic and diffraction analyses elucidated intricate hydrogen-bonding interactions that stabilise the phase-separated polymer blend during thermoplastic foaming. Scanning electron microscopy revealed interconnected macropores and micropores that support fibroblast adhesion, spreading and proliferation. The resulting scaffold exhibited favourable mechanical resilience and cytocompatibility, underlining its potential for soft tissue regeneration and as a versatile platform for further biofunctionalisation.

Research from all publishers

A comprehensive review of high-pressure gas foaming of biomedical polymers has highlighted the capacity to produce porous scaffolds with finely tunable density, pore size and architecture at low temperature and without toxic solvents. Incorporation of inorganic fillers and bioactive molecules during foaming enabled multifunctional constructs for bone regeneration, combining mechanical strength with controlled drug release. In parallel, melt-state supercritical CO₂ foaming of polycaprolactone has been shown to yield scaffolds with over 90% porosity, pore sizes of 70–180 µm and interconnectivity exceeding 95%, promoting vigorous cell ingrowth and superior mechanical performance. Additionally, solid-state extrusion coupled with porogen leaching of polylactic acid has produced highly porous scaffolds with interconnectivity above 97% and compressive moduli matching trabecular bone, demonstrating the value of combining mechanical reinforcement and tailored microarchitecture for load-bearing applications.

Tissue Engineering Scaffolds Fabrication and Characterization publication trend

The graph below shows the total number of articles in tissue engineering scaffolds fabrication and characterization across all publications each year (not limited to Nature Index journals).

Technical terms

Scaffold porosity: The proportion of void space within a scaffold that permits fluid flow, nutrient transport and cell migration.

Interconnectivity: The connectivity between pores that enables cell infiltration, vascularisation and uniform tissue formation.

Supercritical fluid foaming: A solvent-free technique using supercritical carbon dioxide to generate controlled pore structures in polymer matrices.

Porogen leaching: A method in which sacrificial particles are embedded in a polymer and removed to create pores of defined size and distribution.

Melt blending: The process of mixing polymers in the molten state to tailor mechanical, thermal and degradation properties.

Hydrolytic degradation: The chemical breakdown of polymer chains by water, influencing scaffold resorption rate and tissue integration.

References

1. A novel poly (vinyl alcohol)/poly (ethylene glycol) scaffold for tissue engineering with a unique bimodal open-celled structure fabricated using supercritical fluid foaming. Scientific Reports (2019).
2. Current Trend and New Opportunities for Multifunctional Bio-Scaffold Fabrication via High-Pressure Foaming. Journal of Functional Biomaterials (2023).
3. Fabrication of PCL Scaffolds by Supercritical CO2 Foaming Based on the Combined Effects of Rheological and Crystallization Properties. Polymers (2020).
4. Engineering Porous Poly(lactic acid) Scaffolds with High Mechanical Performance via a Solid State Extrusion/Porogen Leaching Approach. Polymers (2016).