Van der Waals Epitaxy of Two-Dimensional Materials

Van der Waals epitaxy is an approach to crystalline growth that exploits weak, non-covalent interactions between layers to bypass the constraints of lattice mismatch. By depositing two-dimensional (2D) materials onto substrates such as graphene, hexagonal boron nitride, mica or metals, researchers can achieve large-area films with low defect densities and preserved intrinsic properties. Control of surface energy, nucleation density and interface engineering has enabled the synthesis of monolayer and few-layer transition metal dichalcogenides, group III–V semiconductors and oxide nanostructures with tailored orientation and grain size. Moiré engineering at 2D/3D interfaces introduces periodic potential modulations that tune charge distribution, excitonic behaviour and contact resistance. Advances in in situ microscopy and first-principles modelling have clarified adatom diffusion, defect-assisted nucleation and remote growth mechanisms. Efforts to lower growth temperature, employ catalytic mediators and integrate exfoliable membranes are extending the technique to a broader materials palette. The unique combination of fundamental insight and scalable processing positions van der Waals epitaxy at the forefront of wafer-scale electronics, optoelectronics, spintronics and flexible device platforms.

Research from Nature Portfolio

Recent studies have directly visualised interfacial moiré superlattices at 2D/3D junctions using advanced scanning transmission electron microscopy combined with geometric convolution analysis. These experiments revealed a hidden periodic pattern and, through ab initio calculations, showed how charge density is modulated according to the moiré period, opening routes to tailor optoelectronic response via interface engineering. In parallel, pinhole-seeded lateral epitaxy on graphene-terminated III–V substrates has been demonstrated: nanoscale openings in the graphene layer act as selective nucleation sites, guiding lateral growth and film coalescence. The resulting films can be exfoliated as free-standing membranes, clarifying growth mechanisms and enabling transfer-able, lattice-mismatched heterostructures.

Van der Waals Epitaxy of Two-Dimensional Materials publication trend

The graph below shows the total number of articles in van der waals epitaxy of two-dimensional materials across all publications each year (not limited to Nature Index journals).

Technical terms

Van der Waals epitaxy: Growth of crystalline layers by weak interlayer forces rather than strong chemical bonds, allowing lattice-mismatched interfaces.

Moiré superlattice: Periodic pattern arising from the superposition of two incommensurate lattices, which can modulate electronic structure.

Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE): A vacuum-based deposition technique in which atomic beams impinge on a substrate to form epitaxial layers with atomic-scale control.

Nucleation: Initial stage of crystal growth in which atoms or molecules aggregate to form energetically stable clusters that seed layer formation.

Remote epitaxy: Variant wherein the substrate’s lattice potential is transmitted through a two-dimensional interlayer, guiding overgrowth on top without direct bonding.

Heteroepitaxy: Epitaxial growth of a material on a substrate of different composition or crystal structure, often requiring tailored interface design.

References

1. Unraveling the Heterointegration of 3D Semiconductors on Graphene by Anchor Point Nucleation. Small (2023).
2. Nucleation and growth of WSe2: enabling large grain transition metal dichalcogenides. 2D Materials (2017).
3. Direct imaging and electronic structure modulation of moiré superlattices at the 2D/3D interface. Nature Communications (2021).
4. Pinhole-seeded lateral epitaxy and exfoliation of GaSb films on graphene-terminated surfaces. Nature Communications (2022).
5. Architectured van der Waals epitaxy of ZnO nanostructures on hexagonal BN. NPG Asia Materials (2014).
6. van der Waals epitaxy of Mn-doped MoSe2 on mica. APL Materials (2019).
7. Catalytically mediated epitaxy of 3D semiconductors on van der Waals substrates. Applied Physics Reviews (2020).
8. Scalable low-temperature synthesis of two-dimensional materials beyond graphene. Journal of Physics Materials (2020).