Introduction

The global consumption of processed meat products has been on the rise, driven by population growth, urbanization, and rising incomes. Globally, there has been an increasing trend in the consumption of processed meat products, which currently represent more than 40% of the total meat production worldwide1. In developed countries, there has been a decline in per capita consumption of processed meat. For example, beef consumption in Canada decreased by 23.3% between 1980 and 2001 2. However, in developing countries such as China, Brazil, India, and Mexico, there has been a rapid increase in the consumption of processed meat products as income levels rise and diets shift1. According to Statista reports, the consumption of processed meat products in Iran has been steadily increasing over the past decade. The data show that the average per capita consumption of processed meats in Iran was approximately 2.8 kg in 2024. In the processed meat market, the volume is expected to reach 285.70 m kg by 2029. The processed meat market is expected to show a volume growth of 2.6% in 2025 3.

Meat products are an important part of the human diet, and their consumption has increased worldwide in recent years. These foods are good sources of energy and some nutrients, such as essential amino acids, and high-biological-value proteins4. On the other hand, it raises several health concerns. Some processed meat products can be high in saturated fat, sodium, and other nutrients that may increase the risk of chronic health problems such as heart disease if consumed in excess5. Several studies have highlighted the detrimental effects of high fat contents in processed meats on human health6. The nutritional profile of processed meat products is typically negatively impacted by their high animal fat content7. A high fat content, especially saturated fat, in processed meats has been linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, obesity, and other chronic health conditions8.

Essential fatty acids (FAs), fat-soluble vitamins, and energy are all obtained from fat, which is a necessary part of the human diet. However, several fat-soluble acids (FAs), particularly trans fatty acids (TFAs), have been connected to detrimental effects on human health9. TFAs are unsaturated fatty acids that have a minimum of one trans-configuration double bond. This configuration can be produced artificially in the food industry and manufacturing process by partially hydrogenating vegetable oils, such as various fast food products, naturally from meat and dairy products generated from ruminants10 or by frying fatty food, which has been identified as a key process leading to the production of TFA. This process also results in the thermal oxidative degradation of unsaturated fatty acids11.

Over the past few decades, several studies have shown the effects of TFA on human health, leading many nations to enact restrictions intended to limit or minimize its intake12. Studies have revealed a substantial correlation between a 2% increase in energy obtained from trans-fat and a 23% increase in the risk of CHD. The World Health Organization (WHO) suggested that dietary intake of trans fatty acids should not exceed 1% of total caloric consumption because of these health hazards13.

Several European countries, including Denmark (with a TFA limit of less than 2%), Australia, Austria, Hungary, Iceland, Norway, and Switzerland, have taken significant steps toward restricting the TFA content in food products13. In 1999, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) mandated that food manufacturers disclose the trans fatty acid content on product labels. On July 11, 2003, the FDA finalized a regulation requiring the explicit listing of TFA on food packaging. This was done to empower consumers to manage their TFA intake to below 1% 14,15. Furthermore, overweight and obese subjects commonly have a high dietary intake of fat as a percentage of total caloric intake, especially SFAs. Both the WHO and the US Dietary Guidelines advocate reducing SFA intake to less than 10% of total energy intake15,16.

To our knowledge, this is the first study to comprehensively evaluate the fatty acid profile of meat products and highlights an action plan to identify practical solutions for the development of the food industry, particularly for processed meat producers, and to facilitate policymakers’ decisions to implement healthier meat products to promote public health.

Materials and methods

Sample Preparation

In this cross-sectional study, sixty samples from the best-selling brands—cordon bleu, nugget, chicken breast schnitzel, loghmeh kebab, breaded chicken fillet, beef hamburger, cocktail sausage, kielbasa/sausage, hot dog and German sausage/sausage—were randomly selected from food chain stores in five districts (north, south, west, east, and center) of Tehran, Iran (2024) (the list of the most purchased samples was taken from the marketing unit of the Iran Meat Products Industry Association). For every product, three distinct brands were selected, with two samples obtained from each brand, resulting in a total of 60 samples (3 × 2 × 10). Each sample was designated a two-digit code, stored correctly in a cool environment (either in a freezer or refrigerator, according to the label guidelines), and transported to the laboratory for analysis under controlled temperature conditions. The ingredients of the meat products are listed in Table 1.

Table 1 Ingredients of meat products assessed.
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Total fat

First, 10 g of each sample was mixed with 75 mL of ultrapure water and 45 mL of 37% hydrochloric acid to extract the fat. The mixture was then boiled for 20 min, allowed to cool to room temperature, and filtered through Whatman No. 40 filter paper17. The Folch method was then used to remove fat from the digested samples. After hydrochloric acid hydrolysis, the residue was transferred to an Erlenmeyer flask, where 35 mL of a 2:1 V/V chloroform-methanol solution was added. The flask was then shaken for 25 min and sonicated for five minutes. The mixture was filtered to remove any solids. The same volume of chloroform-methanol solution was used twice to extract the samples again. A separating funnel was filled with the liquid stages, which were then combined. After 20 mL of saturated sodium chloride solution was added, the mixture was shaken for two minutes. After the chloroform phase was removed and filtered, sodium sulfate was used to dry the mixture once more, and it was dried at 40 °C with a N2 flow.

The Preparation of Methyl esters of fatty acids

To prepare methyl esters of fatty acids, 50 mg of extracted fat was combined with 5 µL of NaOH-methanol solution (0.5 mol/L) and heated for 10 min at 105 °C. Following cooling, 5 mL of BF3-MeOH (14%) solution was added, and the mixture was heated for 7 min at 105 °C. N-hexane (3 mL) and saturated sodium chloride solution (5 mL) were added after cooling, and the mixture was thoroughly shaken. After that, the hexane layer was extracted and put to use for examination18.

Analysis of fatty acids

An Agilent gas chromatograph (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA, USA) equipped with an HP-88 column (100 m × 0.25 mm × 0.2 μm) and flame ionization detector (FID) was used to assess the fatty acid content of the samples. Helium and hydrogen gas were used as the flame gas and the transported gas, respectively. The temperature program was as follows: After five minutes at a starting temperature of 180 °C, the temperature was increased to 190 °C at a rate of one °C per minute. The temperature was raised to 200 °C at a rate of one °C per minute after being maintained at this level for 20 min. We maintained this temperature for 17 min. The temperatures for the injection and FID were 220 and 210 °C, respectively. The fatty acid analysis was performed for 62 min.

Statistical analysis

The data were analyzed via SPSS version 20 (SPSS, Chicago, IL). Tukey’s test (p < 0.05) was used to quantify the differences between the two groups. One-way ANOVA was used to determine the differences among the different groups. The means and standard deviations for various parameters were calculated.

Results & discussion

Total fat

In numerous nations, there is a tendency among consumers to excessively consume saturated fatty acids while inadequately consuming polyunsaturated fatty acids. The consumption of fatty acids is a significant concern because of their influence on low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels, which are linked to cardiovascular diseases. Typically, saturated fatty acids increase LDL cholesterol levels in the bloodstream, thereby increasing the risk of cardiovascular issues, whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids contribute to a reduction in LDL cholesterol levels. The fatty acid profile of meat derived from ruminants tends to be relatively saturated, primarily because unsaturated fatty acids undergo biohydrogenation within the rumen19,20.

The results of the analysis revealed a significant difference in the total fat levels of the meat products. Cordon bleu (21.23%) had the highest total fat content, and the lowest content (13.34%) was found for sausage. There were significant differences between samples (P < 0.05).

Compared with the Iranian National Standard Organization (INSO) cordon bleu, the nugget, breaded chicken fillet, and chicken schnitzel exceeded the maximum allowed amounts. On the other hand, loghmeh kebab, hamburger, cocktail sausage, kielbasa/sausage, hot dog, and sausage were lower than allowed amounts21,22,23. Notably, the total fat content of the samples can be increased due to the amount and type of oil used and the type of cooking24.

The fat content in our study was lower than that in previous studies. For example, in a study conducted by Nazari et al. 2009 in Iran, the total fat contents in sausages/hot dogs, kielbasa/sausage, and hamburgers were 27.9%, 26.3%, and 35.9%, respectively25. A study in 2018 reported that the mean fat percentages of cordon bleu, chicken schnitzel, and nugget samples were 61.15, 26.16 and 24.15%, respectively26. Thus, compared with previous studies, our findings recently revealed that the fat content of these products has decreased. The total fat content of the samples is presented in Fig. 1. Consumer perceptions of meat and meat products might be negatively impacted by their alleged poor nutritional composition. To supply healthier products and counteract these negative connections, it is necessary to consider other approaches. Techniques used in animal production, such as genetic techniques and nutrition management, present intriguing chances to increase the amount of bioactive chemicals in meat. Reducing the amount of fat in meat or using plant and marine feed sources to increase the amount of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) has been the main goal of feeding management efforts27. The total fat content of meat can decrease, and its fatty acid profile can be improved by the use of physical modification technologies and protein, carbohydrate, lipid, and complex matrix fat substitutes. This approach can be used as a dietary alternative to help prevent chronic diseases. Additionally, they can provide reformed products with new sensory and technological qualities28.

Fig. 1
figure 1

The fat content of meat products available in Iran. The different letters above each column indicate the significant difference (P<0.05). INSO: Iranian National Standard Organization.

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Trans fatty acid

The TFA contents of the samples are presented in Table 2. The content of TFA in the hamburger (3.77%) and loghmeh kebab (2.65%) groups was significantly greater than that in the other groups and exceeded the allowed amount of TFA (% 2) (P < 0.05). However, the lowest TFA content was found in nuggets (0.51% g/100 fat).

Table 2 Trans fatty acid (TFA) composition of meat products.
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Nazari et al.. conducted a study in 2009 in Iran and reported that the TFA contents of sausages, kielbasa/sausage, and hamburger were 26.2%, 23.6%, and 30.6%, respectively29. Yılmaz et al. (2009) in Turkey reported a total of 1.37–7.95% TFA in meat products30.

In contrast, lower TFAs were reported by Hosseinabadi et al. (2021) in nuggets (0.36%) in Iran31 and Wagner et al. (2008) in sausage (2.04%) samples in Austria31. Additionally, Pipoyan et al. (2022) reported a TFA content of 0.18 g/100 g fat in hot dogs and burgers in Armenia32. In addition to their findings, Mario Fernández and Juan (2000) reported a TFA content of 3.7% in sausage samples in Spain33. Moreover, Pasdar et al. (2018) reported lower TFA levels in Iranian burgers (1.33%) and kebabs (2.30%) than did our findings34.

Our study identified elaidic acid/vaccenic acid (C18:1) as the primary trans fatty acid, with levels ranging from 0.03% in breaded chicken fillets to 2.74% in hamburgers. The trans isomer of linolenic acid (C18:3), another trans isomer fatty acid, was found in negligible quantities among all the products. While Pasdar et al. (2018) reported lower elaidic acid levels in Iranian burgers (1.33%) and kebabs (2.30%) than our findings did34Mario Fernández and Juan (2000) reported a higher value (3.7%) in Spain33. Another study by Yılmaz et al. (2009) in Turkey documented a wider range of elaidic acid contents (1.21–5.94%) in various meat products30.

The formation of trans fatty acids (TFAs) can occur naturally through rumen synthesis and can be influenced by dietary factors. However, practices such as the use of growth stimulants, high-temperature processing of raw meat materials, prolonged storage of products, and high sodium nitrite content during meat processing can contribute to increased TFA levels in raw meat35. In the present study, the observed variations in TFA content across products could be attributed to the type of meat used and the potential presence of hydrogenated oils in hamburger and kebab loghmeh kebab formulations, which are known sources of trans fats. High levels of TFAs have been identified in hamburgers and kebabs, primarily due to the use of hydrogenated vegetable oils in their formulations36. This finding aligns with our observations37 While frying can contribute to TFA formation, the primary source is generally considered to be the used oil, not the food itself38.

Therefore, to minimize TFAs in hamburgers and loghmeh kebab, reformulating these products to reduce the hydrogenated oil content is crucial. This approach, along with potentially using alternative fats and cooking methods, can significantly decrease TFA levels.

According to scientific research, there are multiple ways in which consuming TFA is linked to an elevated risk of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). Thus, the consumption of fewer TFA dietary choices is advised. The consumption of industrially produced trans fatty acids (IP-TFAs) has been linked to several detrimental health effects, such as increased LDL and decreased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, systemic inflammation, endothelial function, and visceral fat accumulation, which lead to an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, and other chronic illnesses have been connected to these alterations39.

Saturated fatty acids

The SFA compositions of the samples are shown in Table 3. The highest amount of saturated fatty acids (50.38%) was found in hamburgers, followed by loghmeh kebab (45.41%), and the lowest amount of saturated fatty acids was observed in sausage (20.79%). Hamburger and kebab significantly differed from the other samples (p < 0.05).

Table 3 Saturated fatty acid (SFA) composition of meat products.
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Our findings concerning SFA content align with those of Pasdar et al.. (2018) in Iran for kebabs (45.40%) and sausages (21.97%); however, the schnitzels (31.36%) and burgers (41.74%) in our study presented lower SFA contents than did their findings34. Mario Fernández and Juan (2000) reported a high SFA content of 42.8% in burgers33. Moreover, Hossein Abadi et al. in 2021, in Iran, reported a lower SFA content of 0.36% in nuggets31. Additionally, in 2007, Karabulut reported higher SFA contents in Turkish sausages (44.01%) and hamburgers (39.82%) than our findings did9. This discrepancy might be due to the use of hydrogenated oil or the type of meat used in their formulations.

Our study identified palmitic acid (C16:0) as the major contributor, with the highest amount found in fried chicken fillets (28.49%) and the lowest in sausages (13.99%). The stearic acid content ranged from 4.37% in the fried chicken fillets to 20.20% in the hamburgers. The myristic and lauric acid contents were consistently less than 2.7% in all the products. Some studies have reported that the most abundant SFA in meat product samples is palmitic acid (C16:0)34,40.

Studies have shown that saturated fatty acids (SFAs) increase low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, which is a risk factor for CVD16; thus, a minimum amount of SFAs is advised in a healthy diet41. Among saturated fatty acids, stearic acid (C18:0) has no effect on LDL cholesterol, whereas lauric acid (C12:0), myristic acid (C14:0), and palmitic acid (C16:0) increase cholesterol levels36,42. One of the most effective practical public health strategies to address consumer health concerns about disease risk is to modify meat products by substituting monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) for SFAs43. Accordingly, adding vegetable oils and other plant-based ingredients to meat product recipes presents opportunities for a more healthy fatty acid profile as well as a source of vitamins, minerals, fibers, and antioxidants44. It is possible to replace animal fat in meat products with plant-based oils that are high in MUFAs and PUFAs. These plant-based oils, which have high quantities of MUFAs and PUFAs and low levels of SFAs, can be used to create healthier and more nutritious meat products45. However, substituting oil for fat can have an impact on the palatability and quality of the finished product46.

Unsaturated fatty acids

The unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) contents of the samples are shown in Table 4. The UFA content ranged from 44.85% in hamburgers to 78.72% in sausages. There was no significant difference among the meat product samples. UFA comprises monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) as follows:

Table 4 Unsaturated fatty acid composition of meat products.
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Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs)

Our analysis revealed that oleic acid (C18:1), a type of MUFA, was the dominant fatty acid in all the samples. The concentration of loghmeh kebab was the highest (39.99%), while sausages contained the lowest concentration (31.52%). Palmitoleic acid (C16:1) also varied, ranging from 0.19 to 2.86%.

The existing research on the MUFA content in these products presents a mixed picture. A study in Iran (2009) reported 37.9% MUFAs in sausages29 whereas another study (2018) reported higher levels in loghmeh kebab (41.87%) than in sausages (29.14%)34. Similarly, studies in Turkey documented varying MUFA contents across different sausages30. These findings suggest potential variations on the basis of factors such as meat source, processing method, and geographical origin. MUFAs offer a range of health advantages, including a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. Additionally, MUFAs contribute to heart health by promoting favorable cholesterol profiles, aiding in blood pressure management41.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are derived from a variety of sources that can be incorporated into the daily diet to maintain health47. Sausages had the highest PUFA content (46.42%), whereas hamburgers had the lowest (3%). Linoleic acid (18:2 ω6) was the most abundant PUFA, ranging from 2.79 in hamburger and 44.31 in sausage, and alpha-linolenic acid (C18:3 ω3) was the most abundant PUFA, ranging from 0.21 in hamburger to 3.65 in cocktail sausage.

A study in 2018 reported that the PUFA content in Iranian meat products was 46.98% and 8.12% in sausages and loghmeh kabab, respectively34. Another study in Iran reported 37.13% PUFA content in sausages42. Nazari et al. (2009) reported 14.31% in sausage and 15.2% in kielbasa/sausage, which are lower values than those reported in our study29. Yilmaz (2009) reported a PUFA content of 24.69–25.20 in sausages30.

Linoleic acid (omega-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3) are essential PUFAs, which means that the body cannot make them and should provide them from food48. They play a vital role in creating other fatty acids. Linoleic acid is abundant in vegetable oils and fried foods. PUFAs offer a range of health benefits. They have been linked to a reduced risk of heart disease and blood clots49. Notably, omega-3 fats within PUFAs are particularly important for brain function and development50. Importantly, frying can decrease the PUFA content in foods51.

Linoleic acid (LA) is an essential omega-6 fatty acid that must be obtained from the diet. It can be converted to other omega-6 fatty acids, such as arachidonic acid (AA). Some omega-6 fatty acids, such as gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), have shown benefits in treating chronic disease symptoms. However, an imbalance in omega-6 fatty acids compared with omega-3 fatty acids may contribute to inflammation and chronic diseases52. Additionally, alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is an essential omega-3 fatty acid that must be obtained from the diet and has anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and antidepressant effects. ALA may provide modest cardiovascular benefits by lowering cholesterol and maintaining endothelial function. However, the conversion of ALA to the more potent omega-3 s eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is limited in humans, so it is recommended to also consume sources of EPA and DHA52.

In summary, both omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids are essential and have important health benefits, but maintaining a healthy balance between the two is important to avoid excessive inflammation.

Fatty acid ratio

The different fatty acid ratios of the samples are shown in Table 5.

Table 5 Level of MUFA, PUFA (g/100 g fat) and ratios in different meat products.
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n-6/n-3 ratio

The findings of this study revealed an n-6/n-3 ratio ranging from 10.68 ± 0.99 (cocktail sausages) to 21 ± 3.76 (sausages) among the samples.

A study in Spain (2010) reported a similar n-6/n-3 ratio (11.5–15.1) in sausages53. Research suggests that a higher intake of omega-3 PUFAs, leading to a lower n-6/n-3 ratio, is linked to positive health outcomes54. To promote optimal health, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends maintaining this ratio below 4:1 40.

The omega-6 to omega-3 (n6/n3) ratio is critical for understanding health implications related to chronic diseases. A high n6/n3 ratio, typical in Western diets, is linked to increased inflammation and a greater risk of conditions such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and cancer55. In contrast, a balanced ratio (ideally between 1:1 and 4:1) supports anti-inflammatory processes and may reduce disease risk. The shift toward higher omega-6 fatty acid intake, primarily from refined oils, exacerbates these health issues, highlighting the need for dietary adjustments to optimize this ratio for better health outcomes56.

MUFA/PUFA ratio

The ratio of MUFAs/PUFAs ranged from 0.67 ± 0.88 (sausage) to 12.68 ± 3.72 (hamburger). This finding contrasts with a study in 2016 that reported lower ratios for sausages40.

The World Health Organization recommends a MUFA/PUFA ratio of approximately 1.5:1 for dietary oil consumption57. However, the search results indicate that the MUFA/PUFA ratio alone is not sufficient to predict the effects on plasma and liver lipid levels. Other important factors are as follows58:

  • The MUFA/SFA ratio : a low MUFA/SFA ratio is preferred.

  • The PUFA/MUFA ratio : a high PUFA/MUFA ratio is better.

  • The overall PUFA + MUFA/SFA ratio : this should not exceed 2.

Research indicates that a greater intake of MUFAs can lead to improved lipid profiles by reducing low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels while potentially increasing high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol59. In contrast, PUFAs, particularly omega-3 fatty acids, are associated with anti-inflammatory effects and reduced cardiovascular disease risk60. Moreover, studies suggest that diets rich in MUFAs can have a neutral or beneficial effect on blood cholesterol levels, contributing to lower cardiovascular disease risk61.

The PUFA/SFA ratio

The PUFA/SFA ratio is a crucial indicator of fat quality in the human diet62. A higher ratio suggests a more favorable fatty acid profile for cardiovascular health. In our study, sausages presented the highest PUFA/SFA ratio (2.23 ± 0.35), whereas hamburgers presented the lowest (0.06 ± 0.01). For optimal health, many nutritional organizations recommend a PUFA/SFA ratio of at least 0.4 63. A study in Spain reported a PUFA/SFA ratio of approximately 1:1 for commercially available chicken hamburgers33. In general, the PUFA/SFA ratios were higher than those reported by Pasdar, et al.34which ranged from 0.18 to 2.14 in meat. This trend was consistent across all the meat samples except for sausages, where the PUFA/SFA ratio was comparable to previous findings. Interestingly, the PUFA/SFA ratio of sausage (2.23%) was significantly greater than the value reported by34. Additionally, Karabulut9 reported a PUFA/SFA ratio of 0.40 in meat products, which falls below the recommended range.

The PUFA/SFA ratio has important implications for health: replacing saturated fatty acids (SFAs) with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) has been shown to decrease the LDL cholesterol concentration and the total/HDL cholesterol ratio, which reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease. However, a very high PUFA/SFA ratio can also be problematic, as PUFAs are more susceptible to lipid peroxidation and can increase oxidative stress. These findings suggest that there is an optimal PUFA/SFA ratio range for health. Studies indicate that a PUFA/SFA ratio of approximately 1.0–1.5 and a peroxidizability index (PI) value of 80–90 in the diet are within a favorable range for reducing cardiovascular disease risk. Replacing SFAs with monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) can also have beneficial effects on lipid profiles, but the ratio of PUFAs/MUFAs is also important. A high MUFA/SFA ratio with a low PUFA/MUFA ratio may lead to increased plasma and liver cholesterol levels. The optimal fatty acid profile appears to be one with a balance of SFAs, MUFAs, and PUFAs, rather than simply maximizing the PUFA/SFA ratio58,64.

The PUFA/SFA ratio is a critical nutritional index reflecting the balance of PUFAs and SFAs in the diet, influencing cardiovascular health (CVH). Higher PUFA intake is associated with reduced risks of CVD and type 2 diabetes, whereas excessive SFA intake is correlated with increased serum cholesterol levels and CVD risk65. Optimal health outcomes are linked to the replacement of SFAs with PUFAs, which can lower LDL cholesterol and inflammation, thus mitigating chronic diseases. However, an imbalance favoring n-6 rather than n-3 PUFAs may promote inflammatory conditions, emphasizing the need for balanced intake66.

The recommended total fat consumption in the diet, as advised by the majority of experts, should constitute approximately 25–30% of the overall daily energy intake67. The literature review indicates that the mean consumption of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) is approximately 10.3% of total energy intake (EI), surpassing the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommended maximum of 10%. Additionally, the average intake of trans fatty acids (TFAs) is estimated to be 1.9% of the EI, which also exceeds the WHO’s upper limit of 1% EI. The factors that adversely impact the progression of coronary heart disease (CHD) are believed to subsequently increase the potential risk for the onset of CHD68.

Action plan strategies for healthier meat products

The high fat content, particularly saturated fat, of processed meats has been linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, obesity, and other chronic health conditions. Therefore, particular action plan strategies have been placed on this issue to facilitate policymakers’ decisions to use healthier meat products to promote public health (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Proposed action plan strategies for meat products.

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An effective strategy for enhancing health care could involve the development of a more nutritious food supply as a preventive health measure. This could be achieved by creating functional foods that offer superior nutritional benefits compared with traditional options. Nevertheless, the production of such functional foods presents challenges, as they must also be palatable, convenient, and affordably priced to encourage consistent consumer adoption. Meats hold significant potential for providing essential nutrients, including fatty acids, minerals, dietary fiber, antioxidants, and bioactive peptides. However, to successfully incorporate these nutrients into meat products, it is necessary to develop technologies that increase their stability while minimizing any adverse effects on flavor. Furthermore, various regulatory challenges must be addressed to facilitate the commercial production of nutrient-enriched meats. These challenges include the need to redefine standards of identity and establish policies that permit nutritional claims on packaging. Without these regulatory advancements, the creation of healthier meat products may remain unattainable. It remains uncertain whether consumers would be inclined to pay a higher price for these products or if meat companies would take on expenses to create a more competitive offering4,19. A promising strategy for enhancing health care could involve the development of a more nutritious food supply as a means of preventive health care.

Limitations

The lack of standards for saturated fatty acids in meat products can be considered an important limit. It would also be advisable for future studies to analyze the effects of combining these methods to obtain meat products with high acceptance by nutritionists and consumers.

Conclusion

This study explored the fatty acid composition of the most consumed meat products in Iran. The findings reveal a trend concerning overall fat content, particularly saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and trans fatty acids (TFAs). While some products exceeded the recommended SFA limits set by the Iranian National Standard Organization (INSO), a general decrease in fat content compared with that reported in previous studies suggests potential reformulations within the food industry.

TFA levels were especially concerning, with hamburgers and loghmeh kebab exceeding the recommended limit of 2%. This highlights the urgent need to minimize the use of semihydrogenated oils in these products. Additionally, high SFA content, particularly palmitic acid, was observed in hamburgers and loghmeh kebab, further emphasizing the importance of reformulation strategies to create a healthier fatty acid profile.

While the content of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), primarily oleic acid, offers some health benefits, the overall unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) profile requires improvement. The n-6/n-3 ratio generally exceeds the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommendation of 4:1, indicating that an imbalance can be detrimental to health. The MUFA/PUFA and PUFA/SFA ratios also varied considerably across products, highlighting the need for a more consistent and balanced approach.

In conclusion, the fatty acid profile of these commercially available meat products necessitates immediate action. Policy-level interventions, including stricter regulations on SFA content, limitations on TFA usage, and public education initiatives promoting informed consumer choices regarding healthy fats, are crucial. The food industry must also take responsibility for reformulating products to reduce SFA and TFA content, exploring healthier fat substitutes, and adopting transparent labeling practices. Through a collaborative effort among policymakers, the food industry, and consumers, a more balanced and health-promoting fatty acid profile can be achieved in meat products to promote public health.