Introduction

Globalization has changed economies, and agriculture is facing new challenges. Not only does it compete for exports (Borbón-Morales, 2022), but it also competes on the domestic market, and in some cases, in the absence of normative regulation of market prices, the price is determined by bargaining power (Mutamba, 2024).

The extant literature identifies the principal constraints faced by the rural poor. These are framed by De Brauw and Bulte (2021) as structures, and they identify them in three areas: high price volatility, instability and lack of stability, and lack of access to education.

Derbe et al. (2024) identified the predominant challenges confronting small tomato producers in market-oriented production, namely the absence of equitable sales prices, inadequate market intelligence, the absence of robust connections with other actors in the value chain, and perishability. Consequently, Stathers et al. (2020) emphasized the necessity to comprehend the underlying causes of these losses to facilitate the implementation of effective measurement and evaluation strategies aimed at mitigating post-harvest losses. The identification of the timing of supply chain interventions necessitates the quantification of the extent of post-harvest losses (Chauhan et al., 2021).

Research has demonstrated that the socio-economic background and farming practices of smallholder stallholders are significant factors in their capacity to adopt loss-reducing technologies and practices (Maulu et al., 2021). These factors include access to resources, level of education, and household income (Myeni and Moeletsi, 2020; Suazo-López et al., 2025).

However, a holistic relationship between agro-industrial investments and post-harvest losses among smallholder vegetable stallholders has been demonstrated, and they recommend investing in strengthening extension services and training, among other things (Qange et al., 2024). The minimization of post-harvest losses along the supply chain has been demonstrated to result in increased marketable yields for stallholders, due to the increased quantity of food available for sale. This, in turn, has been shown to enhance incomes, livelihoods, financial stability, and the capacity to invest in greenhouses and community development (Cammarano et al., 2020; Ruwanza et al., 2022).

Furthermore, by reducing losses and increasing productivity, necessary interventions with smallholder stallholders contribute to poverty alleviation and socio-economic development, which in turn inclusive growth and prosperity within rural communities (Assan, 2023). In general, and in terms of social impact, the fact that smallholder stallholders are involved in the value chain as agricultural managers, not only through government regulation but also through necessary support interventions, is conducive to empowerment, inclusion, and economic value (Leão et al., 2023).

This is further compounded by the difficulties posed by unforeseen events, such as the recent emergence of the Coronavirus pandemic. Msomi and Zenda (2024) highlight that the outbreak of the pandemic had a detrimental effect on traders, and consequently on the incomes of smallholder stallholders, who are the primary customers of smallholder stallholders. The challenges faced by smallholder stallholders include a lack of producer planning, inadequate farm management skills, and the absence of extension services. This assertion is further substantiated by Zambrano et al. (2024), who have corroborated the impact of the pandemic on sales, quantifying a loss exceeding 50% for both smallholders and traders/intermediaries.

In this context, Ruben (2024a) identifies three tools to anchor transformation in the value chain, based on an inclusive and sustainable discourse: benefit-sharing agreements between primary producers and traders/retailers, supporting shorter and circular value chains, reducing exchange costs, strengthening mutual trust and controlling losses and waste, and increasing local processing of products. This fosters additional off-farm employment opportunities and strengthens income diversification. This transformation is characterized by a combination of technical (technology exchange), socio-economic (shared responsibility), and behavioral (mutual trust) changes (Jagers et al., 2020).

Moreover, evidence suggests that establishing connections between stallholders and external markets beyond the village can enhance outcomes and success. Consequently, while adopting a market-based approach is recommended (Ndlovu, 2021), it is imperative that interventions focus on modifying the behavior of smallholders (Ruben, 2024a).

The medium-term (4-year) enhancement of confidence in smallholders through collaborative endeavors with academic institutions and local government in Indonesia has yielded encouraging outcomes (Abdurrahman et al., 2023). The adoption of horticultural innovations by smallholder stallholders has been observed to result in a concomitant increase in production and income (Abdurrahman et al., 2023). In Latin America, Argentina and Paraguay have adopted innovative marketing strategies to expedite the sale of locally cultivated fruits and vegetables, thereby supporting small-scale producers and prioritizing family farming for food production (Abdurrahman et al., 2023). This strategy has been shown to generate economic income and employment opportunities for rural families, whilst simultaneously improving their living conditions and ensuring food security and sovereignty (Viteri et al., 2020; Imas, 2020).

Context for growing tomatoes in Mexico

According to Ramírez-Juárez (2022), family farms account for 81.3% of Mexico’s Rural Economic Units, with subsistence farming representing 22.4%. It is a matter of concern that a significant proportion of farmers experience some form of poverty (73%) and marginalization (47.9%).

The COVID-19 pandemic had a noticeable impact on the production of tomatoes in Mexico, decreasing by 4.9% (measured in millions of Mexican pesos) between 2021 and 2022. Moreover, the projected increase in production volume was only 0.3% for 2023. For that same year, predictions anticipate a decrease in tomato production in most regions (excluding Sinaloa), i.e., −2.2% in San Luis Potosí, −13.1% in Michoacán, −29.4% in Jalisco, and −1.3%in other regions (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development Agri-food Expectations, 2023). The State of Mexico registered a preliminary variation of 0% at the end of 2022, but the impact on a global scale was substantial.

Based on data from the Agriculture and Fisheries Information Service (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2021), food production in the State of Mexico mainly consists of tomatoes, grown in 10 out of the 11 regions, covering 51.2% of the municipalities in the state. The Northeastern region specifically cultivates 3% of the total planting area for tomato production and generates 9% of the total state’s income (thousands of Mexican pesos) from this activity.

No records of tomato-based food production in the studied region were available. However, according to Montaño et al. (2021), Mexico is a strong competitor in the fresh red tomatoes market directed to the USA due to its advantageous location, available land, and labor force, among other factors. Therefore, the authors advise that Mexican tomato growers enter the market for processed tomato products.

Diversifying the tomato market in Mexico can avoid the seasonal impact on the market (Red Tomato Agri-Food Panorama, 2019). Nevertheless, the World Processed Tomato Council (WPTC) reports that Mexico needs more global representation in tomato-processed products. The WPTC has also observed a rise in processed tomato quantities outside of countries specializing in tomato processing, alongside increased product consumption in recent years (WPTC, 2021).

Post-harvest tomato opportunity

Tomato production and consumption have increased on a global scale. Mexico and the Netherlands are the leading exporters in terms of volume, while China and the United States of America (USA) are the largest producers and consumers; the USA is also the primary importer. In 2021, tomatoes were the third most important agricultural product according to the total value of Mexican exports (OEC, 2023). In the domestic market, tomato prices differ depending on the planting technology (open field or greenhouse). Furthermore, it is imperative to acknowledge the influence of additional factors on the availability and behavior of prices. These include seasonality of production, the flow of exports, and negative impacts on crops due to meteorological or health conditions (Red Tomato Agri-Food Panorama 2019, 2019).

The post-harvest handling and industrialization of tomatoes has been demonstrated to engender diversification within the national market (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Rural Development, 2017). For instance, tomato dehydration has been shown to reduce packaging costs, enhance shelf life (Ramírez, 2015), and minimize post-harvest losses (Abdulhakeem et al., 2021).

There are several research proposals that seek to provide smallholders with assistance in relation to post-harvest tomato loss and residues (Acosta et al., 2020). However, it is considered important that such interventions are relevant to the contexts in which smallholders operate. Tomato-based spicy sauce is an integral component of the gastronomy of Mexican culture (Rivas-García, 1991). The composition of the spicy sauce is such that it contains tomato, serrano chili, white onion, coriander, garlic, and salt to taste. Recent research has shown that tomato, in combination with its ingredients, is associated with anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic effects (Cárdenas-Castro et al., 2019).

The present study is driven by a series of compelling reasons, which include but are not limited to the following: the necessity to intervene in a pivotal segment of the greenhouse tomato value chain, specifically the management of tomato waste post-harvest; and the opportunity to contribute to the empowerment and participation of small farmers in the enhancement of greenhouse tomatoes. The present study is distinctive in its focus on small-scale farmers, a demographic that has been largely overlooked by extant research, which has concentrated on large-scale farms and interventions dedicated to the export of tomatoes (Borbón-Morales, 2022; Dexter et al., 2023). The present intervention will address this research gap by providing education and training to small street vendors in the municipalities of the northeast of the State of Mexico. To this end, the project proposes the involvement of small farmers in the production of a dehydrated tomato-based hot sauce, with the objective of influencing behavior change in the greenhouse tomato value chain in the medium and long term.

Methods

Target population: smallholder farmers

It is essential to highlight three key characteristics of why interventions for smallholder farmers are needed. Primarily, it is evident that most of the global fruit and vegetable production is attributable to smallholder farmers (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 2019).

The second characteristic is that smallholder farmers can be found across the globe (Malhotra et al., 2024). Irrespective of the various classifications of countries by income level, including developed, transition, developing, and less developed countries, or advanced, emerging, and middle-income economies and low-income developing countries (Raya, 2024), there are smallholder farmers who do not participate in the international or domestic market value chain.

The third characteristic is the significant difference between the value chain of small-scale greenhouse tomatoes and that of export greenhouse tomatoes (Borbón-Morales, 2022). The former has little or no relationship with packing and processing companies, and in addition, they do not belong to a trade union. The regional government organizes its agricultural regions geographically to provide them with resources (fertilizers, seeds, training).

The extant literature has demonstrated that most effectiveness studies are of a mixed-methods nature (Malhotra et al., 2024). Consequently, this study employed an action research approach from the perspective of systems thinking. A multidimensional analysis with a transdisciplinary approach was also employed (Domínguez-Hernández and Zepeda-Bautista, 2024) to integrate the most relevant aspects of the context of smallholder farmers and adapt the proposal to their environment, resources, and skills in the production and processing of tomatoes in greenhouses. Moreover, this standpoint lends support to the notion that researchers ought to dedicate themselves to a particular community, employing tools to systematize the information gathered and provide feedback to the participants (Ison, 2008). Systems engineering, as pioneered by Hall (1962), facilitated the development of an intervention design for the creation of a dehydrated tomato-based spicy sauce prototype.

The intervention’s design comprised a framework grounded in a diagnosis, encompassing a description of the study area, the location of the smallholders who participated in the data collection surveys, the actors involved in the agricultural intervention, and the institutions involved. For the meta-analysis of this agricultural intervention, the results were organized by outcome domain with some modifications from Malhotra et al. (2024). The domains of interest of the meta-analysis were adapted in this study and named as follows: general and specific knowledge of greenhouse tomato production and processing, post-harvest tomato inputs, and market and economic outcomes and empowerment. The information analyzed in the diagnostic was used to identify the factors affecting the post-harvest of greenhouse tomatoes by smallholders in the northeast of the State of Mexico. The tomato post-harvest value chain was mapped to identify the relationships, routes, and interactions of the product of interest, thus enabling the feasibility of producing a dehydrated spicy sauce based on tomatoes not sold after harvest to be defined. The subsequent training program was designed to enhance the smallholders’ understanding of greenhouse tomato production and to cultivate the competencies necessary for processing unsold tomatoes into dehydrated spicy sauce. The training program was meticulously conducted within a greenhouse tomato production unit, utilizing a comprehensive manual that delineated the process of producing tomato-based dehydrated spicy sauce. The training manual draws on scientific literature concerning the nutraceutical benefits of the product, the technology of dehydration, the standardization of the production process, and the economic implications of producing the sauce in two different contexts: semi-industrial and domestic.

Study area description, smallholders, and data collection

The study was conducted in the northeastern region of the State of Mexico, Mexico. Thirty-five small-scale tomato producers from eight municipalities participated in the study. These municipalities were distributed as follows: Nicolás Romero (29%), Naucalpan (20%), Tepotzotlán (17%), Isidro Fabela (14%), Huixquilucan (6%), Jilotzingo (6%), Teoloyucan (3%), Cuautitlán (3%), and Texcoco (3%). These municipalities are home to greenhouses for tomato production.

To obtain information to determine the characteristics of stallholders and define the baseline to be able to design, establish, and evaluate the intervention (Domínguez-Hernández and Zepeda-Bautista, 2024) to improve tomato processing (Table 1), a survey with seven sections was designed. The survey was administered by email and telephone between December 2020 and November 2021. Subsequently, a database was created and statistical analysis was performed using descriptive statistics, in accordance with the methodology developed by Hernández et al. (2007), using Microsoft Excel®.

Table 1 The structure of the survey applied to greenhouse tomato stallholders.
Full size table

Group of experts and stakeholder institutions

To carry out agricultural research with a transdisciplinary systemic approach, it is necessary to create a group composed of representatives from government organizations, educational and research institutions, collaborating producers, and experts in sustainable greenhouse production who work together to develop a comprehensive solution, which is established and, above all, monitored for the continuous improvement of the system in its different phases (Abdurrahman, 2023). For this study, the working group was made up of eight researchers, two students, and one professional from five institutions: (1) the Regional Delegation of Agricultural Development of Cuautitlán Izcalli; (2) the “Nicolás Romero” Rural Development Support Center (CADER), which provided a list of tomato producers; (3) the Fidel Velázquez Technological University, which contributed human resources through its student internship program; (4) the Universidad Autónoma Chapingo; and (5) the Instituto Politécnico Nacional, which provided the researchers and the facilities to conduct the research.

Value chain mapping

For the system analysis, a map of the greenhouse tomato value chain for small producers in the northeastern municipalities of the State of Mexico was developed. It was constructed using information provided by producers in the survey, information collected through direct observation during advisory visits to greenhouses for tomato production, and during interactions with producers at their production units. This map served as a guide to follow the path of activities that the product of interest undergoes (Stein and Barron, 2017), and it was used as a tool to identify the actors involved in cultivation, harvesting, and post-harvest. In the latter, emphasis was placed on what producers do when they obtain tomatoes they cannot sell, the use of the tomatoes, and commercial activities, as well as the training acquired during their time spent growing greenhouse tomatoes.

The market map was integrated into the value chain, which consists of three interrelated components. First, there are the value chain actors, which include farmers, traders, and consumers. Second, there is the production and marketing environment, which includes the infrastructure, policies, institutions, and processes that shape the market environment. Third, there are service providers, which include marketing or extension services that support the functioning of value chains (Fig. 1) (Reddy, 2013).

Fig. 1: Value chain of greenhouse tomatoes produced by small farmers in the northeast of the State of Mexico.
figure 1

Source: Own diagram based on the results of the 2022 survey.

Full size image

Intervention: produce hot sauce made with non-commercial greenhouse tomatoes

To identify the factors affecting greenhouse tomato production, an analysis of positive and negative critical points was conducted, as well as a detailed description of how they affect the system, considering environmental, cultural, political, economic, and human resource aspects. Subsequently, an analysis was conducted of the feasibility of modifying or transforming the current state of the agricultural production system (Domínguez-Hernández and Zepeda-Bautista, 2024) to improve the system.

Following the analysis, interventions were designed that include sustainable practices to optimize the comprehensive use of tomato fruit, such as the seed and pericarp (Cámara, 2019). As a result of this process, the formulation and production of Mexican salsa is proposed.

To design the intervention, a literature review was conducted on the ingredients, production methods, and salsa currently on the market. This research was conducted from 1993 to 2021 in the Scopus, Google Scholar, and IMPI databases. A total of 36 articles were found: tomato-based foods (4), dehydrated tomatoes (18), serrano peppers (4), white onions (3), cilantro (4), and garlic (3). The information was then synthesized and analyzed to identify relevant tomato-based food production and how to adapt the processes to the infrastructure and conditions of small-scale greenhouse tomato growers. Finally, formulations were developed with three factors, each with three levels, in a completely randomized design with three replicates (González, 2014; DomínguezHernández and Zepeda-Bautista, 2024), and the hot sauce was then produced and its nutritional properties evaluated using AOAC (2023) laboratory techniques.

Training small-scale greenhouse tomato producers on fruit processing

For the design, implementation, and evaluation of the intervention: Operation Manual for Mexican Sauce, Fiber, and Dehydrated Seed, a model agricultural manual proposed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2012) was used. This manual is structured with a detailed description of the inputs, production process, and product characteristics, as well as a section of forms for recording production process monitoring and investment costs for producing the proposed products for human consumption.

Finally, a workshop was designed, planned, delivered, and evaluated with the participation of key stakeholders in the greenhouse tomato production system in northeastern Mexico (expert researchers, representatives of the agricultural sector, government organizations, and students). To this end, the strategic planning techniques described by Aranda and Salgado (2005) and a field school approach for small farmers, as described by Ortiz et al. (2013), were used.

Results

A multidimensional, systemic, and transdisciplinary analysis of the greenhouse tomato production system (Domínguez-Hernández and Zepeda-Bautista, 2024), with an emphasis on the post-harvest handling of unsellable tomato fruit, revealed the need to design and implement interventions to utilize this fruit and thereby reduce the economic losses of small-scale producers. This intervention also included training for producing dehydrated hot sauce through the writing of a process manual and a workshop. This approach was applied to the case study of small-scale greenhouse tomato farmers in the northeastern region of the State of Mexico, Mexico, described below.

Demographic characteristics

Regarding gender, 60% of the participants were men and 40% women, with an average age of 53 years. Regarding education, secondary and higher education predominated, with both levels representing 48% of the total respondents (Table 2). Tomato producers had an average of 8 years of experience in greenhouse tomato cultivation and management.

Table 2 Respondents’ characteristics.
Full size table

General and specific knowledge of greenhouse tomato production and processing

From 2002 to 2016, a mere 1.4% of growers sought technical advice or training for production, although this figure rose to 4.2% between 2017 and 2022. The preponderance of advice received emanated from federal, state, and municipal government sources, with the majority focusing on pest management and tomato plant growth and care (57%), organic agriculture (25%), fertilizers (20%), and food processing (8%) (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Type of technical advice received by smallholder farmers between 2022 and 2022.
figure 2

Source: Own diagram based on the results of the 2022 survey.

Full size image

Post-harvest tomato inputs

The mean area of greenhouses was found to be 500 m2, with larger structures reaching up to 1500 square meters. However, it was determined that greenhouses measuring less than 500 m2 constituted 54.3% of the total (Fig. 3). The mean tomato yield for a 1 ha surface area was found to be 16 t. However, it was observed that some individuals produced yields in excess of 19 t per hectare. The harvesting of greenhouse tomatoes typically necessitated the labor of two individuals per production unit, of whom approximately 80% were family members. It is also noteworthy that “unpaid work was typical when the workers were family members” (Fig. 4).

Fig. 3: Size of tomato growing greenhouses.
figure 3

Source: Own diagram based on the results of the 2022 survey.

Full size image
Fig. 4: Percentage of agricultural workers receiving wages from small farmers, unpaid and possibly paid.
figure 4

Source: Own diagram based on the results of the 2022 survey.

Full size image

In contrast, the mean remuneration for paid workers was $236.1 Mexican pesos per day, representing a 36.57% increase on the minimum wage of $172.87 Mexican pesos per day for 2022 (National Minimum Wage Commission, 2023).

Market and economic outcomes

In terms of total small farmers, 11% relied on pluriactivity as their primary source of income, with 43% of this group receiving income from cultivating other crops. Furthermore, approximately 46% of greenhouse tomato growers were company employees, homemakers, or pensioners, generating additional income from trades, livestock activities, technical professions, or other jobs. The majority of greenhouse tomato owners (88.57%) engaged in the sale of fresh tomatoes, with an average yield of 13.5 t, though some reported yields of up to 18.4 t. The marketing of tomatoes primarily occurred through direct sales to local consumers (57%) or greengrocers (40%), with the remaining 30% being sold to retailers and market traders.

The present study indicates that the vast majority of tomato greenhouse owners (97%) encounter a certain degree of loss in tomato production following harvest, attributable to factors such as the diminutive size of the fruit, incidences of disease, and the timing of harvesting at maturity. Tomatoes are frequently discarded due to mechanical damage, the aforementioned diminutive fruit size, and price fluctuations during the period of the pandemic and disease (Fig. 5). The region under scrutiny has, on average, wasted 685 kg of tomatoes per cycle over a period of 6 months, which is equivalent to 5% of the average total sales (13.5 tonnes).

Fig. 5: Nature of tomato post-harvest losses.
figure 5

Source: Own diagram based on the results of the 2022 survey.

Full size image

A mere 2% of tomato growers utilized tomato waste through animal feeding and composting. A mere 8.5% of smallholders offered unsold tomatoes at a lower price than commercial tomatoes, while 91% of them used them to feed their farm animals. One smallholder gave away almost all the unsold tomatoes, and three others disposed of them. The remaining tomatoes are also used for composting (1.5 t) and self-consumption (240 kg).

The financial value of unsold greenhouse tomatoes was found to be between $7908 and $20,770 Mexican pesos. However, the most common income loss was recorded as $900 Mexican pesos. The mean quantity of unsold tomatoes was found to be approximately 5 kg. Despite residing in remote and largely rural regions, 74% of tomato growers reported knowing someone affected by the disease caused by the novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2. Of those affected, 54% spent an average of $10,360.00 Mexican pesos on medication, hospitalization, and recovery expenses, 37% opted for private healthcare, and 26% for public health services.

Factors affecting the post-harvest of greenhouse-grown tomato fruit

The study identifies several critical points, both positive and negative, that affect greenhouse tomato production, indicating potential areas for improvement (Table 3). The positive critical points are as follows:

  1. 1.

    A survey of tomato greenhouse owners revealed that 43% of respondents expressed interest in training opportunities related to tomato processing. It should be noted that the majority of these people (80%) were family members who constituted the workforce.

  2. 2.

    A survey of tomato growers revealed that 43% of them had prior experience in cultivating other vegetables or fruits.

Table 3 Factors affecting post-harvest of tomato fruit under greenhouse conditions by smallholders in the northeast of the State of Mexico, Mexico.
Full size table

Conversely, the following aspects were identified as critical areas for improvement:

  1. 1.

    The majority of the growers, precisely 82.8%, had accumulated less than 4 years of experience in the field of agriculture.

  2. 2.

    Post-harvest tomato loss was experienced by 97% of tomato growers, and 91% of these obtained no income from unsold tomatoes.

  3. 3.

    The average unsold tomato weight was 99 kg per cycle.

  4. 4.

    Only 11% of greenhouse tomato growers had experience in tomato processing, and just 8% had received previous training in food processing.

  5. 5.

    The economic loss per cycle and producer varied from $900.00 to $20,700.00 Mexican pesos. Furthermore, many growers failed to utilize infrastructure and products to generate new sources of employment.

  6. 6.

    Lastly, the impact of the pandemic was significant, with 77% of tomato growers directly or indirectly affected. Furthermore, 46% of those surveyed reported spending an average of $10,360.00 Mexican pesos on private medical care per person (63%).

Contextual analysis of proposed local tomato processing

The experts’ analysis, together with the producers, resulted in an assessment of the feasibility of utilizing unsold tomato waste. Several tomato-based products were then presented and selected using a structured evaluation scale of 0–5 (Table 4). As a result, there was consensus that the most sustainable option was the production of a dehydrated hot sauce, rather than a puree, due to the higher scores obtained in the relevant categories (sustainability, transportation, and storage) of 22 and 11, respectively.

Table 4 Factors evaluated for selecting tomato by-products: puree or sauce, dehydrated seeds, and tomato fiber (Cámara, 2019; Ramírez, 2015).
Full size table

However, small-scale tomato producers selected between one and nine tomato-based product options. While they primarily chose tomato puree, followed by dehydrated sauce, the results showed that only 11% had prior experience in food processing. The investment costs and the complexity of the production process for both products were also evaluated. Therefore, dry sauce, tomato seeds, and fiber were preferred to ensure sustainable production (Cámara, 2019). By-products would allow processes to be adapted to meet production needs and maximize resources.

Mexican red sauce is a staple of Mexican cuisine (Cárdenas-Castro et al., 2019; Perales-Vázquez et al., 2020). Besides its popularity, it also contains phytochemical compounds—such as phenolics and carotenoids, including lycopene (Li et al., 2021)—as a result of the combination of ingredients used to make the sauce (Cárdenas-Castro et al., 2019) which may have beneficial effects on health.

Intervention: dehydrated hot sauce production process

Based on the methods described by Cárdenas-Castro et al. (2019) and Costa et al. (2021), a sauce was prepared with three types of dehydrated tomatoes (Hernández-Rodríguez, 2011): fresh (FJ), roasted (RJ), and cooked (BJ), plus serrano pepper (Sc) (Román-Arce et al., 2020), onion (O) (Seifu et al., 2018), cilantro (C) (Łyczko et al., 2021), garlic (G) (Oluwasola et al., 2021), and salt (S). These ingredients were dehydrated before being incorporated into the sauce formulation. Two types of grinding/mixing were used: (1) with a mortar (MC) and (2) with a mill (ML). Finally, three spiciness levels were defined: High (H), Medium (M), and Low (L). The salsa-making process consisted of the following combinations:

  1. 1.

    Fresh Tomato Salsa 1 = Molcajete-ground with high, medium, or low spiciness.

  2. 2.

    Fresh Tomato Salsa 2 = Molcajete-ground with high, medium, or low spiciness.

  3. 3.

    Roasted Tomato Salsa 1 = Molcajete-ground with high, medium, or low spiciness.

  4. 4.

    Roasted Tomato Salsa 2 = Molcajete-ground with high, medium, or low spiciness.

  5. 5.

    Boiled Tomato Salsa 1 = Molcajete-ground with high, medium, or low spiciness.

  6. 6.

    Boiled Tomato Salsa 2 = Molcajete-ground with high, medium, or low spiciness.

Once the formulations were defined, the sauces were made under laboratory conditions to standardize the process. A detailed manual was then written in a language tailored to producers. It was also proposed that the use of dehydrated tomato seeds and peels be used as by-products of the sauce-making process (Ponce et al., 2021), and work is underway on developing the manuals.

Training for farmers on tomato and dehydrated hot sauce production systems

As a result of a literature review, consultations with producers and experts, and information on the processing of dehydrated hot sauce and its manual, the workshop was held. Although all respondents (35) were invited, 50% attended the training, of whom 73% were women.

For the development of the workshop, two complementary training sessions were organized with small farmers. The first focused on the greenhouse tomato production system, where topics ranging from seedling, greenhouse management, to harvesting and post-harvest handling were reviewed. The second focused on the production process of tomato-based dehydrated hot sauce. These sessions were held in the tomato production greenhouse of a cooperating producer.

During the training, small producers were able to observe and actively participate in both production processes, following the field school approach (Table 5). They also participated in a tasting of the dehydrated tomato-based hot sauce. This allowed them to familiarize themselves with the processes and simultaneously served as a panel of potential consumers, helping them become familiar with the flavor and combination of dehydrated ingredients.

Table 5 Training topics following a farm-field school approach for greenhouse tomato growers.
Full size table

The farmers were willing to share their experiences with their farming operations. They were also interested in exploring alternatives for the use of tomatoes, adapting the proposals to their current operating conditions, and making adjustments for the production of tomato-based foods. A process manual for the production of dehydrated hot sauce was developed to share with smallholder farmers. The manual was printed, and a copy was given to each participating smallholder. The information contained in the manual is based on published research results from the scientific community on sauce formulation, the dehydration technology of its ingredients, the nutraceutical properties of the sauce and tomatoes, the potential economic benefits of using tomatoes, and the economic implications of producing dehydrated tomato-based hot sauce.

The manual is divided into six sections, which are described below (Reséndiz-Castro et al., 2024):

  1. 1.

    Mexican sauce concept, dehydrated fiber, and seeds. Description of the formulation of the dried tomato hot sauce, its benefits, and its social and economic value (Rivas-García,1991; Tatum, 2014; Gálvez and Salinas, 2015; Cárdenas-Castro et al., 2019; Perales-Vázquez et al., 2020).

  2. 2.

    Who benefits from it?. Report on the nutraceutical importance of tomatoes and the possible economic benefits of their processing and marketing (Torres et al., 2022).

  3. 3.

    What is required for its production? List of materials needed to make dehydrated tomato-based spicy sauce (Seifu et al., 2018; Román-Arce et al., 2020; Łyczko et al., 2021; Oluwasola et al., 2021; Costa et al., 2021; Ponce et al., 2021).

  4. 4.

    How to process it? Display the process flow diagram and its description, including whole tomato, fiber, and seeds processing (Reséndiz-Castro et al., 2024).

  5. 5.

    Annexes. Registry templates to control temperature, weight, and dehydration times and record inputs and production costs (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 2012).

  6. 6.

    References. Documentation sources for the operations manual.

Economic implications for small farmers of producing dried tomato-based spicy sauce

In addition to strengthening smallholder farmers’ practical knowledge of the greenhouse tomato production system and proposing its application, the training manual shows the economic implications of producing dehydrated tomato sauces. As shown in Table 6, the main financial costs associated with the investment components per 100 kg of tomato are presented, derived from documented data on the dehydrated tomato sauce production process.

Table 6 Economic implications of 100 kg of fresh tomatoes for making dried sauce.
Full size table

Two investment alternatives were proposed: the first used semi-industrial technology, derived from the average waste reported by producers (685 kg per production cycle). The second considered household expenses, as it was more affordable. Furthermore, it could facilitate a gradual, transitional approach for smallholder farmers toward semi-industrial processes. The aforementioned factors were considered with the goal of enabling smallholder farmers to initiate their own dehydration processes, taking into account their production circumstances.

The preliminary investment necessary for the semi-industrial level has been demonstrated to be 84% less than that required for the domestic level. This finding indicates that the proposed initiative may be feasible for small-scale farmers. A significant advantage of the domestic level of operation is the intuitive nature of the machinery, which is commensurate with the level of training that small farmers receive in food processing.

Discussion

This study underscores the significance of collaboration between researchers, regional government organizations, and local universities in the context of the greenhouse tomato production system. According to Vargas-Canales et al. (2022), the role of these agents is pivotal in collaborating with small farmers as potential generators of innovation. Gabriel-Ortega et al. (2020) posit that this partnership has the potential to enhance technical and scientific capacities through the dissemination of knowledge among the actors involved in the tomato production system. Similar outcomes related to initial interactions between research centers and actors in the education system were reported by García-Sánchez et al. (2018) in states such as Puebla, Tlaxcala, and Hidalgo. Abdurrahman et al. (2023) have reported satisfactory results from this type of intervention in the medium term (4 years) through collaborative action research.

When examining the agricultural sector in the northeastern region of the state of Mexico, the data showed that the average age of smallholder farmers was high (53 years), 11 years older than the average age reported by Mundo et al. (2020). Age was identified as an important antecedent to the adoption of viable decision-making behaviors to take action to improve post-harvest losses, as indicated by Myeni and Moeletsi (2020). In general, the majority of smallholder farmers in the study area are men, unlike what was reported by Ndlovu et al. (2021), where the majority are women.

The tomato yield in the evaluated region is much lower (16.0 kg m−2) than the average reported by Ramírez et al. (2022) in the state of Morelos (19.0 kg m−2) and even lower than the regional average (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2023). In addition, the average production decreased compared to what was reported by Morales et al. (2017). The low yield could be attributed to the advanced age and low educational level of tomato growers in the area, which affects the adoption of technologies (Vargas et al., 2015; Suazo-López et al., 2025).

As demonstrated in the study by Mundo et al. (2020), the probability of obtaining a higher tomato yield is increased by 11% and 49.9% respectively, by a high school or bachelor’s degree. The lack of training during the COVID-19 pandemic has been demonstrated to exacerbate the problem (Mundo et al., 2020). Since 2014, Mexico has lacked a formal system to coordinate research, education, and agricultural extension activities (Santos et al., 2019). In the aftermath of the pandemic, Mendoza-Sánchez et al. (2022) have corroborated the consequences of food access and economic disruption, which may result in increased dependence on developed economies and, concomitantly, increased poverty in Central America and Mexico.

The majority of individuals in this region were dependent on private health services. None of the greenhouse owners provided social security benefits to their workers, which is consistent with the findings of Hernández (2014). Hernández (2014) reported that larger productive units were more likely to offer benefits such as healthcare, food, and lodging. This is due to the difficulties that smaller businesses face when attempting to enroll their workers in the Mexican Institute of Social Security (for its abbreviation in Spanish, IMSS) regime.

This study emphasizes the pivotal role of women (73%) in optimizing agricultural practices and the processing of tomato-based food products. The efficacy of the emergent discourse on inclusive value chain transformation is posited as a facilitator of structural innovations, paving the way for enhanced small market integration (Ruben, 2024a). A pivotal element in this paradigm is the empowerment and training of smallholder farmers in the local processing of food (Ruben, 2024b). This viewpoint is corroborated by the findings of Ebata and Huerttel (2017), who demonstrated that the combination of marketing training with enhanced production technologies was effective in stabilizing rural household incomes. This approach has the potential to generate the requisite synergies and empower women to influence collective action, thereby fostering inclusive governance (Ruben, 2024b). In fact, Cuellar-Gomez (2008) demonstrates the impact on the lives, households, and communities of women who collectively participate in the value chain.

The participation of women in agricultural training signifies an emerging trend in their contribution to the rural economy (World Bank, 2017). Consequently, women have the potential to assume a pivotal role in the domain of tomato processing and innovation within its value chain. Nevertheless, they encounter a substantial workload in the management of productive and domestic responsibilities (Witinok-Huber et al., 2021).

The encouragement of family agricultural production has been demonstrated to ensure an adequate food supply for the population and to facilitate the expansion of product diversification. For instance, tomato growers could supply processed products to local or regional manufacturers in the area, thereby fostering a more sustainable local food economy and allowing growers to develop their food systems (Vilar-Compte et al., 2021). Finally, this approach can help provide access to nutrient-rich food, which is crucial for human health, particularly in light of the food industrialization crisis linked to non-communicable diseases (Feenstra, 1997; Feenstra et al., 2019; Bonet and Belbey, 2023).

The provision of a production unit manual to each smallholder in training has been demonstrated to support the acquisition of tomato processing skills, thereby fostering confidence in processes and accountability among the smallholders. This farm-field school approach has been shown to facilitate the establishment of a functional link between research-based knowledge and existing practices, thereby bridging the gap between science and practice (Adamsone-Fiskovica and Grivins, 2022).

Ortiz et al. (2013) reported the effectiveness of the farm-field school approach in transferring knowledge to those engaged in agriculture. These innovative processes that promote interaction and exchange of experiences and interests could contribute to food security and economic upturn for family smallholders (Bustos-Velandia et al., 2022). Furthermore, the diversification of agricultural activities within farming families has been demonstrated to engender economic benefits derived from the pluriactivity of their activities (Jarquín et al., 2017).

According to Ruben (2024a), the integration of best agricultural practices, the acquisition of skills to manage production activities can, with the necessary trust, lead to collective action in the medium term and eventually to inclusive governance. Thus,

Gascón et al. (2023) show how, in some way, the waste of agricultural resources can be related to planning that is not appropriate to the specific context of smallholders.

In relation to the economic ramifications confronting small-scale farmers in the context of tomato processing, these are associated with the protracted anticipation of government resources and the limited dissemination of economic credits within the agricultural sector. A parallel scenario is observed among small farmers in disparate regions (Pérez, 2023; Guamán-Rivera, 2022).

In general, small farmers are obliged to devise their own financing mechanisms for their crops and the upkeep of their greenhouses. Government support is typically administered at times that do not always align with the requirements of the crops. Consequently, some small producers opt to diversify their crops, as the subsidies are targeted at specific crops rather than those with which they have experience. Moreover, the subsidies do not always meet the greenhouse size requirement (minimum 1 ha). Consequently, the average greenhouse size among small farmers participating is typically less than 500 m2 (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development Agri-food Expectations, 2025; Government of Mexico, 2025).

Conclusions

This research significantly contributes to sustainable agricultural development and food security by proposing a viable alternative for small-scale farmers: hot sauce made from dehydrated tomatoes. The study is thorough, demonstrating rigorous analysis that identifies key issues in the post-harvest management of greenhouse-grown tomatoes. These issues include substantial economic losses caused by unmarketed tomatoes, the limited technical training of farmers, and the absence of sustainable alternatives for utilizing these products.

The following specific contributions stand out in this innovative agricultural initiative:

Firstly, a pioneering agricultural intervention model rooted in systems engineering was developed. This model seamlessly integrates mixed methods and multidimensional approaches, thoughtfully adapted to suit small-scale farmers’ unique socio-economic and cultural landscape in the northeastern region of the State of Mexico.

Secondly, a dehydrated Mexican sauce that utilizes non-marketable tomatoes as its primary ingredient has been created. This innovative use of produce mitigates economic losses typically associated with unsold goods and enhances the nutritional value and commercial appeal of what would otherwise be wasted.

Moreover, the initiative provided practical training in tomato cultivation and food processing, equipping farmers with essential technical knowledge. This hands-on education fosters self-sufficiency and economically empowers individuals, focusing on uplifting women, who play a crucial role in these agricultural activities.

The study also uncovers significant areas for future interventions. This includes the potential to scale up production to semi-industrial levels, which could create further economic opportunities. Additionally, it highlights the importance of strengthening connections with external markets and developing accessible, timely financial mechanisms tailored specifically for small-scale producers.

The findings highlight the need for scalable semi-industrial production models, stronger market connections, and accessible financial mechanisms to support smallholders. The study also emphasizes the transformative potential of context-specific agricultural education in promoting sustainable rural development. This research provides a replicable framework for similar farming contexts globally by addressing post-harvest inefficiencies and empowering farmers through localized solutions.

These contributions elevate discussions on inclusive value chains, circular economies, and gender-inclusive practices, offering actionable insights for policymakers, researchers, and development practitioners who aim to improve food security and rural livelihoods. Future interventions should focus on scaling the proposed model while tackling structural barriers such as access to credit and market integration.

In conclusion, this research establishes a robust theoretical and methodological foundation that can be replicated in similar contexts. It offers a comprehensive framework for implementing sustainable agricultural practices, paving the way for alternative income sources while fostering inclusive and equitable community development.

Outlook and implications

The study highlights several critical areas for future action and policy development to support smallholder farmers in the greenhouse tomato value chain. Below are the key outlooks and implications derived from the results:

Strengthening Market Access and Bargaining Power, the study underscores the need for alternative marketing strategies to enhance smallholder farmers’ bargaining power in local and international markets. As emphasized by Lyon, Mutersbaugh, and Worthen (2019), ethical business practices should be integrated to promote economic and social inclusion.

Practical steps, such as building trust and cooperation among small producers and market actors (Ruben, 2024a, 2024b), can foster a circular economy by utilizing unsold agricultural products, thereby reducing waste and increasing income opportunities.

The research, Context-Specific Agricultural Education and Training, demonstrates the transformative potential of tailored agricultural education, as noted by Manchón and Macleod (2010) and Gallardo-Fernández and Saunders (2018). Effective training programs, like the farm-field school approach used in this study, can empower farmers with tomato cultivation and food processing skills. Pineda, Piñeiro, and Ramírez (2019) reinforce that such education can drive sustainable community development by addressing local challenges and leveraging existing resources.

Gender-Inclusive Value Chain Development: Women’s participation (73%) in training sessions highlights their pivotal role in agricultural innovation and value chain transformation. Future interventions should prioritize gender-inclusive strategies to amplify their contributions and address workload disparities. Empowering women through collective action and inclusive governance, as Ruben (2024b) suggests, can enhance household incomes and community resilience.

Scaling Up and Financial Support, the study identifies opportunities to scale the dehydrated tomato sauce model to semi-industrial levels, but financial barriers remain. Accessible credit mechanisms and timely government support are critical to enabling smallholders to adopt such innovations.

Partnerships with academic institutions, local governments, and the private sector can further facilitate knowledge transfer and resource mobilization.

Policy and Systemic Interventions, policymakers should prioritize systemic solutions, such as improving post-harvest infrastructure, expanding extension services, and integrating smallholders into formal value chains.

Addressing structural issues like age disparities, low education levels, and limited technical training among farmers is essential for long-term sustainability (Suazo-López et al., 2025). The study provides an actionable framework for replicating its model in similar contexts, emphasizing the interplay of education, gender equity, market access, and policy support. By addressing these areas, stakeholders can foster sustainable agricultural practices, reduce poverty, and enhance food security for smallholder communities.