Abstract
Shyness is often linked to negative social adjustment, and children may exhibit various developmental patterns of social withdrawal behaviors at different stages. However, most current research, primarily cross-sectional, has yet to examine individual trajectories of shyness development over time. This study utilized the Latent Class Growth Model to explore developmental trajectories of preschoolers’ shyness as reported by mothers, along with the social adjustment differences among these trajectories. Shyness was measured based on mothers’ reports using the Children’s Social Preference Scale, children’s social adjustment was evaluated through the strengths and difficulties questionnaire reported by mothers, and the Child Behavior Scale and Social Skills Teacher Rating System reported by teachers. The sample comprised 361 children (Mage = 4.72 years, SD = 0.63; 160 girls), with data collected over 1 year at three intervals, approximately six months apart. The results revealed three distinct developmental trajectories for preschoolers’ shyness: high-increasing, low-stable, and medium-stable. The high-increasing group exhibited the most asocial behavior, emotional symptoms, peer problems, and slightly higher peer exclusion compared to the low-stable group, which showed the least. The high-increasing group also had lower interpersonal skills, with no significant gender differences observed. By delineating these trajectories, this study advances understanding of shyness development in early childhood, particularly within the Chinese cultural context. The findings underscore the need for targeted interventions to support children on divergent shyness pathways, thereby promoting better social adjustment and overall well-being.
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Introduction
Shyness is a temperamental trait characterized by wariness and social inhibition in response to novel or evaluative social situations (Crozier & Alden, 2005; Guo et al., 2018). Within the initial educational frameworks of kindergarten, child shyness became increasingly prominent due to the fact that these unfamiliar and complex environments it is likely to cause nervousness and anxiety in child shyness (Arbeau, Coplan, & Weeks, 2010). In fact, whether in familiar or unfamiliar situations, child shyness exhibits vigilant and reticent behaviors (Coplan, DeBow, Schneider, & Graham, 2009). Importantly, it is not a static characteristic—children’s shy behaviors can increase, decrease, or remain stable over time. For example, a previous study found that shyness shows relatively stability from the preschool period to adolescence and early adulthood (Dennissen et al., 2008; Caspi et al., 2003). However, Karevold et al. (2012) have shown that the trajectory of shyness shows stronger growth and greater variation before the age of 4.5 years old, while after the age of 4.5 years old, it exhibits more stable growth (Karevold et al., 2012). Accordingly, understanding these developmental trajectories is critical, as different patterns may predict distinct outcomes in terms of peer relationships, emotional well-being, and academic success. Identifying these heterogeneous pathways early in life may help educators and caregivers intervene more effectively, especially for children at greater risk of social maladjustment.
According to the conceptual model proposed by Asendorpf, there exist three subtypes of social withdrawal: shyness, unsociability, and social avoidance (Asendorpf, 1990; Coplan & Armer, 2007). Shyness represents the interaction of high approach and high avoidance motivations, manifesting as hypervigilance and nervousness in new social settings or when facing perceived social evaluations (Coplan & Armer, 2007). Children with shy temperaments have a strong desire for social engagement (reflecting high approach motivation). However, they are often hindered by anxiety and self-doubt in evaluative social contexts that ultimately inhibit their social participation. Consequently, shy children are more inclined to exhibit vigilance and anxiety, rather than a preference for solitude, in social interactions.
The variability in shyness extends beyond initial levels and includes different developmental trajectories. For instance, while some children exhibit stable shyness levels over time, others may experience increasing or decreasing patterns of shyness as they mature. Shyness as a personality trait has been shown to negatively impact peer preferences and academic achievement while predicting loneliness in non-mobile children (Ding et al., 2020). Longitudinally, shyness in preschoolers was associated with peer difficulties that persisted into school age (Gazelle & Spangler, 2007; Nelson et al., 2005).
Although many studies have focused on shyness in Chinese children (Zhu et al., 2021; Zhu et al., 2020), the majority of these studies remained limited by either a cross-sectional design or studies with only two assessment points. Additionally, most of the existing research has concentrated on middle childhood and adolescence, rather than preschool-aged children. To fill the gaps identified within the scholarly literature, this research employed the Latent Class Growth Model (LCGM). This technique facilitated an investigation into the heterogeneity present within groups and enabled the recognition of various pathways through which shyness develops over the course of time, thereby offering a more intricate portrayal of the progression of shyness in childhood. Specifically, this study aims to examine the developmental trajectories of shyness in Chinese preschool children, particularly identifying the number of latent classes that best describe the shyness behavior patterns. Additionally, this study explores the role of gender in these trajectories and further investigates the association between shyness behaviors and children’s social adjustment.
Shyness development in early childhood
Shy individuals are marked by a disposition that entails caution when encountering new social situations and a sensitivity to perceived judgments from others (Rubin et al., 2009). Empirical evidence suggested that shyness showed relative stability during early childhood (Poole et al., 2020). The beginning of formal schooling for children represents a significant and often challenging transition that nearly all children must navigate. While most children may experience temporary shyness in unfamiliar school settings, a minority exhibit persistent anxiety and behavioral withdrawal (Kagan et al., 1988). Given that shyness is theorized to be a moderately stable temperamental trait (Poole et al., 2020), it is particularly crucial to study the developmental patterns of shyness. Existing studies have identified heterogeneous trajectories of shyness-related behaviors. Tang and colleagues (2017) confirmed the heterogeneity by tracking the trajectories of a Canadian cohort over a 40-year period, revealing long-term individual differences in shyness development during adulthood. Meanwhile, Booth-LaForce et al. (2012) involving U.S. students from fifth to eighth grades identified three distinct trajectories of peer-nominated anxious withdrawal: low-stable, medium-increasing, and high-decreasing. A similar pattern was observed in younger U.S. children, from first to sixth grades, by Booth-LaForce and Oxford (2008). These findings collectively demonstrate significant individual variation in shyness trajectories, even among children exposed to analogous social contexts.
Previous studies have shown that Chinese children exhibit significantly higher levels of shyness compared to European American children; this difference is mainly attributed to the combined effects of innate temperament and socialization (Chen et al., 1998). Although there is the possibility that the changing values of China may reduce the adaptive benefits of shyness, Chinese children would be under less social pressure to change or inhibit their shy tendencies than children in the West. Therefore, based on the sociocultural environment, the purpose of this study was to explore the developmental trajectories of shy children in China.
Shyness development and social adjustment during early childhood in the chinese context
Shyness has emerged as a risk factor for preschoolers’ development in contemporary China (Zhang et al., 2021). In early studies in collectivistic Chinese society, shyness was considered reflective of maturity, modesty, self-restraint, mastery, understanding, and it was associated with positive peer relationships and psychological well-being (Chen et al., 1995). However, rapid economic development ushered in a shift in educational goals and practices, leading to recent findings that shyness often shares a linkage with school avoidance problems, antisocial problems, and peer rejection problems (Wu et al., 2014). Zhu and colleagues (2021) also found that highly shy children are most likely to behave in an unsociable manner and get rejected by their peers. These results reflect that Western values have been widely recognized in China (Chen et al., 1995). This has also resulted in Chinese attitudes being more opposed to child shyness (Liu et al., 2018; Xiao & Coplan, 2023). This historical transformation underscores the necessity to examine whether contemporary Chinese preschoolers follow developmental pathways similar to Western results (Booth-LaForce et al., 2012) or exhibit culture-specific patterns. Although the core behavioral expression of shyness—such as social withdrawal and inhibition—may be similar across cultures, its social meaning and developmental consequences can vary depending on cultural norms and expectations. In recent years, while China has been profoundly influenced by individualistic ideologies, its deeply rooted collectivist culture continues to exert significant influence. Within this cultural context, shy behaviors may be socially rewarded as signs of modesty and self-control, whereas in individualistic cultures they are typically viewed as social deficits (Rubin et al., 2009).
As cultural beliefs and values shape people’s social evaluations of and responses to shyness (Chen, 2012; Chen & French, 2008), shy children are likely to receive different social evaluations in Western and Chinese contexts. In China, shy children may receive approval and praise from parents, teachers, and peers, which would foster their positive social adjustment (Chen, 2008). Children who exhibit traits cherished by their culture can expect to receive acknowledgment and encouragement from adults and their peers (Chen, 2012). In turn, this favorable recognition reinforces the continuation and enhancement of such attributes, simultaneously aiding children in building self-assurance and positive self-perceptions. (Chen & Schmidt, 2015). Chen et al. (1999) found a positive association of shyness with both peer acceptance and academic achievement, suggesting that shy children in China may enjoy good levels of adjustment. In this way, unlike many shy children growing up in the West, shy children in China tend to be more accepted and are generally better adjusted (Chen, 2010).
However, China’s rapid modernization and globalization have shifted societal values toward individualism, prioritizing assertiveness and independence (Chen et al., 2005; Coplan et al., 2017). Consequently, shyness has increasingly correlated with adverse adaptive outcomes, a shift that is particularly pronounced in rapidly transforming developing countries like China. Illustratively, recent research indicates that in contemporary urban Chinese settings within the 21st century, shyness is linked to issues of maladjustment, encompassing peer disdain and depressive symptoms (Liu et al., 2014; Zhu et al., 2021). Despite these changes, contemporary parenting in urban China still seeks to balance traditional and Western approaches (Fong, 2007; Zhang & He, 2021), indicating the persistence of traditional attitudes. For example, Chinese parents of preschoolers pay more attention to physical development and social etiquette; thus, shyness at this stage is more tolerated compared with other ages (Han et al., 2020). Therefore, this study is dedicated to exploring the significant differences in social adjustment among children with different types of shyness trajectories, particularly in urban environments where individualistic competencies are increasingly valued.
Gender differences
Existing cross-sectional studies have consistently indicated minimal gender differences in childhood shyness prevalence, with findings remaining stable across multiple informant sources (Coplan et al., 2008; Mullen et al., 1993). The pattern of gender similarity has been further supported by longitudinal research examining developmental trajectories of social withdrawal (Degnan et al., 2014). However, several exceptions have been documented. Brooker and colleagues (2013) identified that girls were more likely to exhibit a trajectory of high-stable social fear in toddlerhood. Interestingly, Zhu et al. (2022) found that early and middle childhood showed no significant gender-based differences in behavioral inhibition and shyness, with the divergence only emerging in late childhood when girls more frequently exhibited shyness and associated behaviors than boys (Rubin et al., 2009). Therefore, based on the above research, this study mainly explores the gender differences in shyness trajectories.
The present study
Previous research has predominantly focused on shyness development among school-age children and adolescents, particularly its association with social adjustment (Poole & Schmidt, 2020). By contrast, relatively less attention has been paid to developmental trajectories of shyness for preschool children within the modern Chinese context, either in relation to gender or in relation to social adjustment.
To address this gap, this investigation tries to explore the two objectives: (a) identifying latent trajectories of shyness among Chinese preschoolers, (b) examining their links to social adjustment, and (c) testing the gender differences.
Method
Participants
All the participants were selected from public kindergartens in Shanghai. In China, Shanghai is one of the largest and most advanced regions. The public kindergartens in this area mainly serve children within the geographical area where the kindergartens are located, and all children belonging to this geographical area are eligible to enroll and study in these kindergartens. In this study, the data were gathered from November 2015 (T1) to November 2016 (T3). Informed consent was obtained from both mothers and teachers prior to data collection. The study included 361 children aged 4 to 6 years (Mage = 4.72 years, SD = 0.63), of whom 160 were girls, along with their mothers (Mage = 33.56 years, SD = 3.82) and teachers (T1). In Shanghai, children attend kindergarten for three years, for example, junior class (3–4 years old), middle class (4–5 years old), and senior class (5–6 years old). Moreover, among the participants, 85.56% of the children were only children. All children were of Han ethnicity, which is the predominant ethnic group in China (nearly 97% of the population).
In terms of parental education, 15% of mothers and 14.5% of fathers held a high school diploma. Moreover, 26% of mothers and 27.4% of fathers had some college education, 51.4% of mothers and 41.3% of fathers held a bachelor’s degree. Additionally, 7.6% of mothers and 16.8% of fathers had a master’s degree or higher.
Procedure
During the interval between T1 and T3 assessments, mothers and teachers completed various scales online, adhering to standardized testing protocols. Both mothers and teachers provided informed consent prior to the commencement of testing.
Approximately six months have elapsed between each time point: T1, T2, and T3. From T1 to T3, data on children’s shyness were collected at each of the three time points using the Child Social Preference Scale, which the mothers completed. At T3, both mothers and teachers completed questionnaires to collect data on children’s social adjustment.
Missing data
In total, 361 participants were encompassed in the survey across the three time points. The attrition rate was 13.57% between T1 and T2 and 19.55% between T2 and T3. Little’s MCAR test was employed to assess the nature of the missing data, which indicated that the data were missing completely at random (MCAR). The attrition rate was 18%. Little’s MCAR test indicated that the missing data were entirely random (χ2 = 54.76, df = 54, p = 0.45) (Little, 1988). Consequently, the Full Information Maximum Likelihood (FIML) estimation method handled the missing values.
Parent-reported measure
Shyness
In the online assessments, this study employed seven items from the Chinese version of the Child Social Preference Scale (CSPS; Coplan et al., 2018; Li et al., 2016b) to measure children’s shyness at T1 through T3. Mothers rated statements about their children (e.g., “My child seems to want to play with other children but sometimes gets too nervous”) on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Item scores for this subscale were averaged to form the shyness variable, with higher scores indicating more shyness. We used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to assess the construct validity of the shyness subscale. The results showed that the shyness subscale exhibited high construct validity (χ2 = 583.42, df = 186, χ2/df = 3.13, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.90, TLI = 0.90, RMSEA = 0.08). In the current study, the Cronbach’s α coefficients for the scale across the three assessments (T1–T3) were 0.86, 0.84, and 0.88, respectively.
Social adjustment
At T3, mothers completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, 1997). This study selected ten items from the questionnaire to assess children’s emotional symptoms (e.g., “often fearful, easily scared” Cronbach’s α = 0.66, good construct validity from results of CFA as shown in χ2 = 9.63, df = 4, χ2/df = 2.41, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.93, TLI = 0.83, RMSEA = 0.06) and peer problems (e.g., “tends to get along better with adults than with other children” Cronbach’s α = 0.42, good construct validity from results of CFA as shown in χ2 = 0.49, df = 4, χ2/df = 0.12, p < 0.001, CFI = 1.00, TLI = 1.00, RMSEA = 0.00), using a 3-point scale ranging from 1 (“not true”) to 3 (“certainly true”). This scale has demonstrated good reliability and validity among Chinese preschool populations (Wang et al., 2021). Although Cronbach’s α for the peer problems subscale was relatively low, it is still considered acceptable according to previous literature (Du et al., 2008; Patel et al., 2021; Zhu et al., 2024).
Teacher-reported measure
Social adjustment
Data on children’s social adjustment were collected using the Teacher-Reported Child Behavior Scale (Ladd & Profilet, 1996), as revised by Zhu et al. (2018). The scale has demonstrated good reliability and validity in Chinese preschool populations (Liu et al., 2021), with responses rated on a scale from 1 (“not true”) to 3 (“very true”). In this study, three subscales were used to assess asocial behavior (6 items; e.g., “solitary child,” Cronbach’s α = 0.85, good construct validity from results of CFA as shown in χ2 = 21.78, df = 8, χ2/df = 2.73, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.06), peer exclusion (7 items; e.g., “peers refuse to let child play with them,” Cronbach’s α = 0.85; good construct validity:χ2 = 31.97, df = 12, χ2/ df = 2.66, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.89, RMSEA = 0.07), and prosocial behavior (5 items; e.g., “helps other children,” Cronbach’s α = 0.80; this subscale showed good construct validity: χ2 = 28.94, df = 12, χ2/df = 2.41, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.06). This study employed 11 items from the Social Skills Teacher Rating System (Zhu et al., 2017; Gresham & Elliott, 1990), completed by teachers, to evaluate children’s interpersonal skills. The scale employs a 3-point scoring system, ranging from 1 (“never”) to 3 (“often”), and has demonstrated good reliability and validity in Chinese preschool populations (Xie, 2023). In the current study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient for this dimension was 0.92.
Analytical strategy
Initially, SPSS 23.0 handled missing values and conducted descriptive statistical analysis. The attrition rate was 18%. Little’s MCAR test indicated that the missing data were entirely random (χ2 = 54.76, df = 54, p = 0.45) (Little, 1988). Therefore, EM imputation was employed to handle the missing data. Following primary data processing, measurement invariance testing for the shyness data across the three time points was conducted using Mplus 8.0. In addition, in the longitudinal invariance test, if CFI changes were <0.01, RMSEA changes were less than 0.015, and SRMR changes were <0.03 (Chen, 2007), then the longitudinal invariance test is considered to be valid. Given that the study included only three time points, a linear growth model was used as the foundational model (Wang & Bi, 2018). The study assessed the normality of each variable and selected the appropriate estimation model accordingly. Various types of Growth Mixture Models (GMM) and LCGM were tested to determine the optimal model, and their fit indices were compared.
Model fit was evaluated using the Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), sample-size adjusted BIC (aBIC), Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), Entropy, the Lo-Mendell-Rubin adjusted likelihood ratio test (LMR-LRT), and the Bootstrap likelihood ratio test (BLRT). Lower values of the first three indices indicate better model fit. The Entropy index ranges from 0 to 1, with values closer to 1 indicating more accurate model classification, while values around 0.8 suggest over 90% classification accuracy (Nylund et al., 2007). Significant p values in the LMR and BLRT tests indicate that a model with k categories fits significantly better than one with k-1 categories (Scotto & Baer, 2012).
Gender was incorporated as a predictor in a separate latent class growth modeling analysis to investigate the gender differences in developmental trajectories. Subsequently, the BCH three-step approach was employed to explore the characteristics of each developmental trajectory across different dimensions of social adjustment. To ensure the robustness of the results, the Benjamini-Hochberg (BH) procedure was applied for multiple comparison corrections.
Results
Preliminary analyses
The means, standard deviations, and correlation matrices of all variables at the three time points are shown in Table 1. Significant correlations were found between gender and variables such as prosocial behavior, peer exclusion, interpersonal skills, and emotional symptoms. Consequently, gender was controlled for in subsequent analyses.
Normality tests were also conducted on the shyness data. The results showed kurtosis values of −0.28, 0.68, and −0.06 and skewness values of 0.40, 0.64, and 0.53 across the three time points, respectively, indicating an approximately normal distribution (kurtosis less than 7, absolute value of skewness <2) (Curran et al., 1996; Hair et al., 2010). For model estimation, the Maximum Likelihood Robust (MLR) estimator was employed, as it is suitable for studies with small to medium sample sizes (Bentler & Yuan, 1999; Wang et al., 2011).
In the subsequent sections, the primary results of the analyses are presented. First, based on the optimal number of latent classes identified, the study outlines the developmental trajectories of shyness. Next, it examines the impacts of gender on the developmental trajectories of shyness across different latent classes of children. Lastly, using children’s social adjustment at T3 as the dependent variable, the study explores distinctions among the different categories within each developmental trajectory.
Measurement Invariance
The measurement invariance test results are displayed in Table 2. The study compared the fit indices of different models, including Configural, Metric, and Scalar Invariance models for shyness, and the results indicated satisfactory model fit.
Specially, the data results indicate that the RMSEA, CFI, and SRMR of shyness in preschool children hold (ΔRMSEA ≤ 0.015, ΔCFI ≤ 0.01, ΔSRMR ≤ 0.03). Therefore, the items in the shyness scale can still accurately reflect the changes in shyness of preschool children over time, as the shyness subscale of the CSPS has longitudinal measurement invariance. We sincerely appreciate the suggestions you put forward.
Trajectories of Shyness
As shown in Table 3, to ensure the validity of the classification, the probability of each class should exceed 5% (Wen et al., 2023), which led to the exclusion of the three-class GMM and the four-class LCGM. Compared to the two-class GMM, the four-class GMM exhibited lower BIC, ABIC, and AIC values and a more balanced distribution of class probabilities. Although the LRT p values for the four-class GMM were not significant, the BLRT is considered a more robust test than the LRT (Sun Fang et al., 2023; Nylund et al., 2007). Given that the BLRT p value was less than 0.001 and the Entropy value was relatively high (Wang & Bi, 2018), the four-class model was selected for the GMM. Compared to the two-class LCGM, the three-class LCGM exhibited lower BIC, ABIC, and AIC values, a more balanced distribution of class probabilities, and the LRT and BLRT p values were below 0.05. Thus, the three-class model was selected for the LCGM. When comparing the four-class GMM with the three-class LCGM, the latter exhibited a higher Entropy value, which was acceptable (≥0.75; De Jong et al., 2023), leading to the final selection of the three-class LCGM.
This study identified three distinct developmental trajectories of shyness, with the observed and model-estimated average trajectories depicted in Fig. 1. The trajectories are as follows: (a) a high-increasing trajectory (59 children, 16.35% of the sample), starting at a high level and showing a continuous increase over one year (β = 0.15, SE = 0.07, p = 0.02); (b) a low-stable trajectory (106 children, 29.36% of the sample), starting at a low level and remaining stable over the year (β = −0.02, SE = 0.04, p = 0.72); and (c) a medium-stable trajectory (196 children, 54.29% of the sample), starting at a medium level and remaining stable over the year (β = −0.04, SE = 0.04, p = 0.36).
Percentages of the sample for the trajectories were 16.35% (high-increasing), 29.36% (low-stable), and 54.29% (medium-stable).
Gender and trajectories
To investigate the effect of gender on the developmental trajectories of shyness across different latent classes, this study incorporated gender as a covariate in the LCGM. Gender (male = 0, female = 1) was used as a predictor, and the classification of latent categories (3 C) was treated as the dependent variable in logistic regression. Using the high-increasing group (C1) and the low-stable group (C2) as reference categories, Odd Ratio (OR) coefficients were derived to reflect the effects of genders across the latent classes.
The objective of the logistic regression analysis was to determine whether gender significantly influences the likelihood of children being assigned to specific categories of shyness developmental trajectories. The data analysis results in Table 4, show that gender did not exhibit statistically significant effects across the different latent categories of shyness developmental trajectories. From this, it can be inferred that gender is not a determining factor in classifying shyness developmental trajectories.
Post-hoc analyses: differences between trajectory groups on associated variables
Gender was used as a covariate, and the manual BCH method was applied to analyze further differences in social adjustment (prosocial behavior, asocial behavior, peer exclusion, interpersonal skills, emotional symptoms, and peer problems) across the categories. After applying the BH correction, the results (Table 5) indicated that at Time 3 (T3), the high-increasing group exhibited the highest level of asocial behavior. In contrast, the low-stable and medium-stable groups showed similar levels. The high-increasing group exhibited lower levels of interpersonal skills compared to the low-stable group. Additionally, the high-increasing group exhibited the highest emotional symptoms and peer problems levels, while the low-stable group exhibited the lowest levels in both categories. Furthermore, the high-increasing group exhibited higher peer exclusion levels than the low-stable group, although this difference was only marginally significant. These findings reveal significant differences among the subgroups of shyness developmental trajectories in social adjustment, emphasizing the urgency of implementing early interventions for children in the high-increasing group to prevent further deterioration in their social adaptation difficulties.
Discussion
Most longitudinal studies to date have indicated that the development of children’s shyness takes clear paths across time (for instance, see Chen et al., 2019) and is determined by varied cultural backgrounds (Chen et al., 2023). These studies provide a background and, subsequently, an impetus for examining the expression of shyness in preschool-aged children within non-Western cultural settings and valuable insight into its development within those particular contexts.
The current study identified three kinds of shyness development trajectories for Chinese preschoolers, namely high-increasing trajectory, low-stable trajectory, and medium-stable trajectory. These patterns were somewhat consistent with but also differed from those in previous studies. While the tripartite classification was consistent with trajectory numbers identified in Western samples (Hassan et al., 2023), the specific patterns demonstrate important cultural variations. Notably, a high-increasing trajectory was observed, which contrasts with the stable trajectories reported in North American preschool children (Hassan et al., 2023). In addition, the increasing trajectories were found in older Chinese children (Chen, 2019).
Initially, the cultural context informs adults’ attitudes about shyness. In some collectivist cultures, such as China, shyness is viewed as a commendable, or at least not undesirable, characteristic, as it aligns with values of social cohesion and conformity to group norms (Chen et al., 1995). Shy children in such cultures may be encouraged and accepted by adults, which in turn may ease their acceptance by peers. Such acceptance may promote continued increases in the shy behaviors of these children. Furthermore, the criteria mainly utilized by Chinese people to evaluate young children adhere to the traditional concept of a ‘good child’, defined by widespread social values. A child who conforms to these standards is deemed a ‘good child’. Shyness, associated with self-restraint, is thus considered well-behaved and sensible and is seen as representative of a ‘good child’ (Chen, 2018). Encouragement of shy behaviors by adults may sustain or even enhance children’s shyness. Conversely, dramatic shifts in social and economic structures in contemporary urban China reversed attitudes toward encouraging more individual social initiative, autonomy, and competitiveness (Chen et al., 2005), thereby leading to the adaptive function of shyness may diminish. Because of these changing values, shy behaviors appear to be viewed more negatively in Chinese culture. In addition, personal charisma becomes an increasingly essential skill, leading to shyness no longer being encouraged and potentially hindering personal development (Rubin et al., 2009). This social transformation suggests that the developmental social adaptation of shy children in China may increasingly diverge from that observed in traditionally collectivist settings, reflecting broader sociocultural changes. Therefore, the impact of shyness on social adjustment is not static but varies over time and cultural contexts.
As initially hypothesized, this study identified medium-stable and low-stable shyness trajectories, indicating that children’s initial level of shyness was either medium or low and remained so over the following year. In previous studies on the development trajectory of Chinese and Western children, we also identified a low-stability group (Chen et al., 2019; Poole, Cunningham & Schmidt, 2020), suggesting that these patterns may reflect normative temperamental development across cultures. As children enter kindergarten for learning, they gradually form habitual responses to the new environment, and their behavioral patterns tend to stabilize (Rubin et al., 2009). Thus, even in novel and complex situations, it may become more difficult to change their shy behaviors, which may reflect a stable, trait-like measure. This may be one reason underlying the fact that we did not find unstable patterns of observed shyness. In addition, traits such as self-assertion, self-confidence, and opinion expression have been highly valued due to the need to adapt to new social and economic environments. This, in turn, shy children may encounter growing adaptation challenges, prompting them to learn social skills, engage in more social interactions, and adapt to the new social environment, which leads to the shyness trajectories no longer showing an increasing trend but tending to stabilize. In the Chinese context, traditional values emphasize behavioral restraint, obedience, and modesty, which align well with moderate levels of shyness. Thus, cultural identification promotes the sustained and stable expression of shy behaviors by making them acceptable or even ideal traits (Li et al., 2016). This interpretation highlights the importance of early identification and context-sensitive intervention in childhood shyness.
Studies have documented that modern Chinese parents strive for a balance between traditional Chinese and Western ways of child-rearing in their child-rearing practices, especially in well-developed cities. They not only encourage their children to uphold conformity and obedience, but also advocate for their children’s personality expression and independence (Fong, 2007; Zhang & He, 2021). For instance, parents encourage their children to listen to whatever elders say and, at the same time, be independent enough to handle certain things. This often leads parents to encourage behaviors such as being well-behaved and compliant within the family. In a sense, the moderate shyness exhibited by children in the middle and low-stability groups aligns more closely with the expectations Chinese parents have for their children’s words and actions in the current social context in China.
Furthermore, in situations of interpersonal difficulties (e.g., a perceived violation of social norms), processes associated with shyness (e.g., inhibition, compliance) may contribute to the appeasement of the situation, increase the likelihood of reconciliation or at least prevent the exacerbation of the conflict (Gilbert & Trower, 1990; Hassan et al., 2023; Keltner, 1995; Keltner et al., 1997). For instance, when conflicts arise among children, if one party (characterized by shyness) exhibits compromising and compliant behaviors, it may help to soothe the emotions of both parties, thereby preventing the dispute from escalating. Consequently, children who display medium or lower levels of shyness may receive affirmation from their parents for such behaviors, thereby maintaining a stable level of shyness.
This study identified a small subgroup (1.34%) within the high-growth trajectory, where initially elevated levels of shyness continued to increase over the year. On the one hand, early school experiences (kindergarten environment) are highly stressful for children, as facing unfamiliar peer groups and social demands can exacerbate fear in shy children (Arbeau et al., 2010). Significantly, for shy children, early social experiences might reinforce their behavior patterns, making it difficult to change their responses to challenging social environments (Chen et al., 2019; Chen & Schmidt, 2015). Higher shyness levels can lead to increased interpersonal difficulties (Parker et al., 2015; Rubin et al., 2009), intensifying social anxiety and reinforcing shyness (Yang & Liu, 2016; Ooi et al., 2017; Parker et al., 2015). Therefore, the shy behaviors of children with higher levels of shyness might be reinforced due to being “overlooked” and the increased social anxiety and fear, leading to a continual increase in shyness. In addition, preschoolers are at an earlier stage of socio-emotional development. Their heightened sensitivity to social evaluation and limited coping strategies may make them particularly vulnerable to escalating social withdrawal in response to negative peer experiences (Coplan & Arbeau, 2008). For example, compared with older children or adolescents, preschoolers have poorer regulatory and problem-solving abilities (Zachariou & Whitebread, 2019; D’Zurilla et al., 1998), and they show poorer adaptability when facing the complexity and stress of social environments (Arbeau et al., 2010). This developmental vulnerability, combined with contextual stressors, may lead to a continuous increase in shyness levels.
On the other hand, these children may be innately endowed with a highly reactive temperament, exhibiting more pronounced behavioral inhibition (reluctance to speak or few words spoken) in a social context (Hassan & Schmidt, 2021; Coplan et al., 2009; Poole et al., 2023). These reasons may explain why a high-decreasing group was not observed in this sample. This trajectory is of critical concern, as sustained increases in shyness have been linked to greater risks of social and emotional maladjustment (Zhu et al., 2019). This study’s participants, from public kindergartens in Shanghai, emphasize holistic development and child-centered teaching (Li & Li, 2019; Li & Johnston, 2015). However, these supportive practices may not fully address the intensifying challenges of increasing shyness for children in the high-growth trajectory. Anxious or overly controlling parenting can contribute to perfectionism and exacerbate shyness, rendering it more arduous for these children to adjust and manage their social anxiety (Curran & Hill, 2019, 2022).
The results revealed no significant gender effect across different developmental trajectories of shyness among preschoolers. This suggests a relatively even gender balance in each category of shyness trajectories, thus contrasting with previous findings among adolescents (Chen et al., 2019). Whereas girls are more often in high-stable trajectory groups in comparison with boys (Booth-LaForce et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2019; Doey et al., 2014; Oh et al., 2008; Poole et al., 2020), but it does not hold in the case of the current study. This might be due to the fact that the population under study is different, considering that previous studies have focused on schoolchildren and adolescents, while the present study has focused on preschool children. Previous research suggested that younger children have equal social-emotional profiles compared to older children (Rubin et al., 2009). Research indicates that gender differences in shyness have been shown to be more salient in older but not in younger children (Chang, 2004; Lazarus, 1982). This can be partially explained by the increased prevalence of social anxiety disorder, which usually develops during this age (Grant et al., 2005). Considering the level of conceptual overlap between social anxiety and shyness (Rapee & Coplan, 2010), the gender difference observed in social anxiety may reflect gender differences in shyness in later childhood.
The absence of gender differences in the developmental trajectories of shyness among preschoolers may also suggest that traditional gender-based expectations and behaviors are evolving. The findings emphasize the possible influence of cultural shifts on the socialization of children. According to gender role stereotype theory (Browne, 1998), early childhood is a vital period for the formation of gender role expectations, and early childhood is crucial for establishing gender roles. However, with the growing acceptance of gender equality, increasing gender equality in Chinese society has led parents to foster comprehensive development (Doucet, 2015). In current Chinese society, parents now expect traditionally masculine traits, such as strength, in girls (Bai et al., 2022; Zhang & He, 2021).
Moreover, parents might expect more independence and proactivity in older children, reflecting societal shifts. Therefore, parents’ tolerance towards shy behaviors in male preschool children might be higher. Xu (2018) posited that parents of only children, influenced by the desire to embody both son and daughter traits, might have dual gender expectations for their child, which could manifest in the socialization process of the child’s gender role. In this study, approximately 86% of the participants were only children, suggesting that most parents might have these de-gendered expectations. Therefore, parents of these children might have de-gendered expectations; specifically, they might expect girls to be more robust and independent while being more tolerant of shy behaviors in boys. Consequently, during the preschool stage, there is no significant gender disparity among Chinese children in the various shyness trajectory groups.
The results of this study supported the initial hypothesis that significant differences in social adjustment exist among the different developmental trajectories of shyness during early childhood. This underscored the significance of comprehending how distinct patterns of shyness influence children’s social interactions and overall developmental progression, emphasizing the necessity for tailored interventions. Specifically, differences were identified among the trajectory groups in asocial behavior, interpersonal skills, emotional symptoms, and peer problems at the T3 time point.
Children in the high-increasing shyness trajectory group showed the highest degrees of asocial behavior, characterized by avoidance of peer interaction and a preference for solitude (Ladd & Profilet, 1996; Zhu et al., 2018). Asocial behavior in this group was significantly higher than in the medium-stable and low-stable groups, suggesting that children with higher levels of shyness experience more significant social anxiety and fear. They are more likely to interpret difficulties in interpersonal interactions as threats (Hassan et al., 2023), become more prone to negative emotions in social interactions, and are affected by interpersonal conflicts, thus exhibiting more asocial behavior. Asocial behavior reduces the chances for shy children to engage with peers, hindering the alleviation of their social anxiety and fear, leading to an increase in their level of shyness. Notably, there was no significant difference in asocial behavior between the medium-stable and low-stable shyness groups. This may be associated with the positive impact of shyness in the Chinese cultural context, where shyness can enhance interpersonal harmony (Gilbert & Trower, 1990; Hassan et al., 2023; Keltner, 1995; Keltner et al., 1997), thereby leading children to receive positive interpersonal feedback and subsequently reducing their social anxiety and fear, thus not resulting in a significant increase in asocial behavior. Therefore, children with moderate shyness did not exhibit more asocial behavior than those with lower levels of shyness.
Similarly, regarding interpersonal skills, children in the high-increasing shyness trajectory group scored significantly lower than those in the low-stable shyness group. In contrast, children in the medium-stable shyness group were at a medium level, not substantially different from the other two groups. Interpersonal skills encompass not only initiative and positivity in social interactions but also the ability to manage interpersonal conflicts effectively, such as “completing assignments correctly” and “finishing homework on time” (Zhu et al., 2017; Gresham & Elliott, 1990). The fear of interpersonal conflict in shy children, and behaviors characterized by “compliance” (such as inhibition and compliance), often leads them to avoid interpersonal conflicts. Research has revealed that shy children facing unfair treatment are more prone to choose to suffer in silence or not protest (Hassan et al., 2023). Such approaches can exert a calming effect and prevent interpersonal conflicts. Resolving and avoiding interpersonal conflicts are essential to interpersonal skills (Wu et al., 2019).
Interestingly, in terms of emotional symptoms and peer problems, the three shyness trajectory groups displayed a progressive pattern. Specifically, children in the high-increasing shyness group had significantly higher levels of emotional symptoms and peer problems than those in the low-stable and medium-stable shyness groups, with the low-stable group having substantially lower levels than the medium-stable group. However, the groups showed no significant differences regarding peer exclusion and prosocial behavior. Peer exclusion emphasizes absolute isolation of the child, such as being refused participation in activities.
In contrast, isolation in peer problems is more “hidden,” where a child may be teased or bullied within a peer group while appearing to be accepted on the surface (Truman et al., 2003; Du et al., 2008). Both emotional symptoms and peer problems reflect the real social experiences of shy children. As mentioned earlier, shy children may exhibit prosocial behavior in social interactions or choose to endure silently in conflict situations, yet their internal negative emotions and adverse experiences persist. This is in line with the findings of Hassan et al. (2023). In that study, children with high levels of shyness, despite showing lower levels of sadness and involvement strategies in interpersonal conflicts, experience more intense physiological reactions than those with lower levels of shyness. The results of this study suggest that these negative emotions and experiences in shy children intensify as their shyness increase, contributing to their more evident asocial behavior and poorer interpersonal skills when shyness reaches a certain level.
Strengths, limitations, and future directions
This study has several strengths, including using multi-source reports (from both mothers and teachers), being the first to examine the developmental trajectories of shyness in a sample of preschool children within the Chinese context, and employing a longitudinal research design. However, the study has some limitations. First, the longitudinal analysis in this study is correlational by nature and does not permit causal interpretations regarding the relationships between shyness and its associated factors. Future study should utilize experimental or quasi-experimental designs to establish causality. Second, the sample was limited to kindergartens in Shanghai, restricting the generalizability of the findings. The main reason is that Shanghai represents one of the largest and most advanced regions in China. Specially, apart from the geographical limitation, Shanghai significantly differs from other regions in China in terms of economic development, parents’ education levels, and access to early childhood resources. These socioeconomic characteristics may restrict the generalizability of our research findings across the national population. Furthermore, public kindergartens in different districts may vary considerably in terms of resources within Shanghai, teaching staff qualifications, and educational philosophies, which may have an impact on children’s developmental experiences. Therefore, the findings reflect the specific situation of preschool children in Shanghai and may need to be more generalizable to children in other regions. Future research should consider a broader geographical range for sample selection to explore whether the developmental trajectories of preschool children’s shyness vary across different regions.
Third, the study collected data at three time points within one year, a relatively short period, to fully capture the development of shyness in preschool children. Future studies could extend the tracking period (e.g., ages 3–6) to examine the developmental trajectories of shyness more comprehensively. Additionally, the study was limited to three time points, allowing only for optimal model selection based on linear models. Future research could include four or more data collection points to explore a broader range of developmental patterns. Forth, although the data were collected from multiple informants (mothers and teachers), all measures were based on self-reports, which may introduce reporting biases, such as mothers’ social desirability (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Additionally, the internal consistency of the peer problems subscale was relatively low (α = 0.42), which may have attenuated associations with other variables. These limitations call for the use of multi-method assessments (e.g., behavioral observation, peer nomination) in future studies.
Fifth, although this study documented culturally specific developmental trajectories of shyness in Chinese preschoolers, it did not systematically examine the underlying mechanisms of cultural change that may have contributed to these patterns. As Chinese society continues to shift from collectivism to individualism, the developmental meaning of shyness may also evolve. Future research could incorporate theoretical frameworks such as Hofstede’s cultural dimension theory to better explain how cultural values—such as individualism versus collectivism—interact with temperamental tendencies like shyness and influence their developmental significance over time. Sixth, the MLR estimator is intended to be used for model estimation in this study. However, we fully recognize that in some contexts involving small samples or categorical data, the “Weighted Least Squares Mean and Variance Adjusted (WLSMV)” method may be more preferable. Future research on small samples or categorical data, the WLSMV should be used for model estimation, it can handle the estimation very well.
Implications for practice
This study, through tracking the developmental trajectories of shyness in Chinese preschool children, provides significant implications for early education practice. Firstly, identifying distinct shyness trajectories enables teachers and parents to detect children at risk of persistent social withdrawal at an early stage, particularly those exhibiting high-stable shyness patterns. For these children, parents should create a favorable family environment and establish an intimate parent-child relationship with their children (Zhu et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2022). Secondly, as shy children are regarded as “difficult” children with negative emotional reactions, parents should adjust their parenting behaviors to be more in tune with these children's shyness (Xiao et al., 2023; Xiao et al., 2021). Finally, when teachers adopt a positive attitude towards child shyness, it can reduce the tension and anxiety of these shy children. Due to the low self-esteem of shy young children, teachers can let them participate in class management work and assume management roles, which can increase their sense of self-efficacy, which improves their passive status in social activities. These findings offer an empirical foundation for developing culturally appropriate intervention programs for shy children that respect individual temperamental characteristics within China’s educational environment.
Conclusion
Although shyness has long been a focal point for researchers, there has been limited exploration of its developmental trajectories in preschool children, particularly regarding the distinct categories of these trajectories and their impact on social adjustment. This study provides a novel perspective by expanding the scope of research on developmental trajectories in preschool children. Furthermore, research on the developmental trajectories of shyness in China, particularly among preschool children, remains limited. This study makes a contribution to the field by focusing on the developmental trajectories of shyness in Chinese preschoolers. Lastly, this study examines differences in social adjustment across various shyness trajectories, providing theoretical support and practical guidance for educators in their interventions with shy children. It deepens the understanding of children's social adjustment.
Data availability
The identified datasets analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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Acknowledgements
We are really grateful to the participating children, parents, and teachers who participated in this study. This research was the funded by the National Social Science Fund of China (Grant No. 24BSH111).
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JZ, SX, and YL were responsible for designing the study. JZ, SX, ZL, YS and YT analyzed the data. SX wrote up the methods and results section. SX and ZL wrote up the first draft. SX, ZL, and YS also penned the initial draft of the manuscript and handled the literature review. ZL, YS, and YT completed the revision of the manuscript. JZ and SX supervised the findings of this work. All authors have discussed and given their approval for the final version of the manuscript.
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All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and national research committee of the Shanghai Normal University (Approval No: 20150602), dated 2 June 2015. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their involvement in the study, in accordance with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
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Informed consent was obtained in September 2015 through homeroom teachers at public kindergartens in Shanghai, which serve children within their designated catchment areas. Teachers distributed printed consent forms to parents or legal guardians, who were given one week to review and return the signed documents. The forms clearly outlined the study’s purpose, procedures, use of anonymized data, and the voluntary nature of participation—including the right to withdraw at any time without consequence. Parents were informed that they would be asked to complete questionnaires at three time points and that data would be used solely for research purposes, including potential academic publication. Given that children constitute a vulnerable population, written consent was provided by guardians, and child assent was obtained in an age-appropriate manner through verbal explanations by teachers to ensure understanding and agreement. The entire process adhered to principles of legitimacy, respect, voluntariness, and transparency.
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Zhu, J., Xiang, S., Li, Z. et al. Shyness in Chinese preschool children: a latent class growth model. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 13, 146 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-06328-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-06328-z
