Introduction

As environmental awareness continues to rise globally, environmental sustainability is becoming a central consideration in people’s decision-making, even in leisure activities such as visiting theme parks (Kim and Lee, 2023; Maduku, 2024). Theme parks, traditionally associated with high levels of resource consumption and waste generation, are now under increasing scrutiny for their environmental impact. One of the most noticeable sources of waste in theme parks is paper-based materials, including printed tickets, receipts, maps, and promotional brochures, which collectively contribute to substantial amounts of paper waste each year (Abbott, 2023). In response to growing concerns about environmental sustainability, many theme parks are adopting digital solutions to minimize their environmental footprint (Pencarelli, 2020). One such approach is the integration of theme park apps designed to replace traditional paper-based materials, thus promoting a “paperless” experience (Sunio and Schmöcker, 2017; Thompson, 2021). For instance, Disney’s My Disney Experience app encourages visitors to access digital tickets, maps, and itineraries, thereby reducing the reliance on printed materials and supporting environmental goals (Resort and World, 2023).

This growing emphasis on environmental sustainability not only reflects broader societal values but also signals a shit in how people assess digital technologies. As such, it has become increasingly important for theme park operators to understand the role of environment-related factors in shaping users’ decision-making, such as user continuance intention and satisfaction with theme park apps. Both continuance intention and satisfaction have been demonstrated to be essential not only to help achieve environmental goals but also to ensure the long-term success of implementing the apps (Bhattacherjee, 2001; Cao et al., 2018), as they can help IS operators to decrease cost and increase profitability (Anderson and Srinivasan, 2003; Bhattacherjee, 2001; Cao et al., 2018).

Prior studies have identified various drivers of user satisfaction and continuance intention of an IS, such as perceived usefulness (e.g., Bhattacherjee, 2001) and enjoyment (e.g., Wu and Lu, 2013). However, as the digital service context evolves, traditional models may no longer fully capture the breadth of motivators. Recent research calls for a shift from human-centric models to more interdisciplinary approaches grounded in quantum theory to address global challenges such as environmental sustainability (Vuong and Nguyen, 2024). Within this interdisciplinary framework, Mindsponege Theory (Nguyen et al., 2022; Vuong and Nguyen, 2024) posits value formation as a dynamic process driven by interactions among information particles. In this view, values are not static preferences but are continuously shaped through the absorption, rejection, or internalization of external information and filtered through an individual’s cognitive system based on subjective cost-benefit assessments (Nguyen et al., 2022). According to this theory, this study argues that perceived environmental friendliness can be seen as an emergent value, formed through users’ evaluation of how theme park apps align with their environmental beliefs and the broader sustainability concerns. Specifically, perceived environmental friendliness refers to the extent to which a user believes that using an app can help reduce waste and protect the environment related to the park (Chen et al., 2015). As environmental issues gain prominence, such values may become increasingly salient and influential in shaping user satisfaction and continuance intention. Yet, despite its growing relevance, the influence of perceived environmental friendliness on user satisfaction and their willingness to continue using such apps remains underexplored.

Moreover, inconsistencies in the literature on travel apps call for further contextual reassessments. For instance, some studies report that perceived usefulness significantly affects continuance intention (Malik and Rao, 2019; Zhou et al., 2022), while some found it does not influence continuance intention (Foroughi et al., 2024). These differing results may stem from differences in app types and tourism contexts. Unlike other travel apps, such as Airbnb, a theme park app is designed to primarily resolve in-park pain points, such as overcrowding and long wait times, by leveraging real-time information and location-based services (Fang et al., 2017; Li, 2021; Shang et al., 2023). Therefore, it is crucial to re-examine whether and how the motivators identified in previous studies, such as functional, hedonic, and social values, still influence satisfaction and continuance intention within the specific context of theme park apps.

Furthermore, although cultural differences have been found to affect individuals’ IS usage behavior, such as the technology acceptance (McCoy et al., 2007), few studies have tested how cultural differences shape the way users from different countries perceive and prioritize different dimensions of value regarding theme park apps. Yet, the impact of perceived value dimensions on user satisfaction and continuance intention may vary significantly across cultures. According to Hofstede’s cultural framework (Hofstede, 2001), culture comprises several key dimensions: power distance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term vs. short-term orientation, and indulgence vs. restraint. Among these, individualism/collectivism and uncertainty avoidance are the most influential dimensions in shaping technology acceptance (Coves-Martinez et al., 2023). The individualism/collectivism dimension reflects the relationship between the individual and the group, with individualistic cultures emphasizing personal autonomy and collectivist cultures prioritizing group cohesion and shared values (Hofstede, 2001). Uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which individuals seek to avoid ambiguous or unpredictable situations, often favoring structure, rules, and reliability (Hofstede, 2001). These cultural dimensions can significantly affect how users assign importance to different app features. For example, users in individualistic cultures may emphasize hedonic value and personal enjoyment more, while users in collectivist cultures might prioritize social value (Chu et al., 2019; Coves-Martínez et al., 2023). These differences can lead to varying levels of satisfaction and differing motivations for continuance intention of theme park apps. Thus, there is a need for more cross-cultural research to explore how perceived value of theme park apps is evaluated differently across diverse cultural contexts.

To address the above research gaps, this study examines the motivators of satisfaction and continuance intention of a theme park app from the perspective of perceived value. This study assumes that environmental value (represented by perceived environmental friendliness), alongside the traditionally studied functional, hedonic, and social values, play significant roles in shaping user satisfaction and continuance intention. Additionally, this study tests users’ cultural background as a moderator. By integrating environmental value into the perceived value framework, this study seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of the factors driving theme park app satisfaction and continuance intention.

The paper is organized as follows: The next section reviews the literature on mobile apps in tourism and perceived value. Section “Research model and hypothesis” then proposes a research model and hypotheses. Section “Method” outlines the methodology used to collect and analyze data. The subsequent sections present the results, discuss the findings, and highlight the implications for theory and practice. Finally, the last section concludes with research limitations and suggestions for future research.

Literature review

Mobile apps in tourism

Mobile apps have been widely used in the tourism industry, and many studies have employed various theories to examine what motivates user satisfaction and continuance intention (see Table 1). In summary, prior studies on satisfaction and continuance intention of travel mobile apps have primarily focused on general travel apps, and few studies have examined a specific theme park app. Theme park apps differ from general travel apps due to their specialized focus and design. While general travel apps offer a broad range of features suitable for various travel activities like booking flights, hotels, or exploring multiple destinations, theme park apps are specifically created to enhance the in-park experience. Their primary focus is addressing the particular challenges of theme park visits, like reducing wait times, managing crowd flow, and improving overall visitor convenience. In contrast, general travel apps cater to a wider range of tourism contexts—like museums, natural landscapes, or urban exploration—without the specialized tools needed to navigate a theme park’s intense, fast-paced environment. The influence of identified motivators in general travel apps may vary when applied to the specific context of theme park apps. For example, while Akdim et al. (2022) and Liu et al. (2023) demonstrated a positive relationship between perceived usefulness and continuance intention with general travel apps, Foroughi et al. (2024) found no such effect in travel-related apps with Thai travelers. Thus, more examinations are required.

Table 1 The summary of recent studies on continuance intention of mobile travel apps.
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Perceived value

The perceived value refers to the overall assessment of the discrepancy between benefits and cost of obtaining a product or service (Zeithaml, 1988). This theory assumes that a person often uses a specific product or service after assessing its values (Zeithaml, 1988). User perceived value is assumed to impact user attitude and behavioral intention, and the relative significance of perceived value may vary depending on the context (Sheth et al., 1991). Perceived value has been extensively used to explain user intentions across various IS, with previous literature examining it either as a unidimensional concept representing overall evaluation or as a multidimensional construct that assesses various aspects of an IS product or service (see Table 2). Prior literature has demonstrated that users’ behavioral intention to engage in IS may be driven by multiple values (Van der Heijden, 2004). For instance, in social media, perceived value was classified into four dimensions: hedonic, information, technology, and social values (Li et al., 2018). Regarding travel online agents, perceived values include functional, social, epistemic, and conditional values (Talwar et al., 2020).

Table 2 List of prior research studying perceived value of mobile apps in IS field.
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Recent theoretical advancements call for an even broader conceptualization of value. Notably, Mindsponge Theory offers a novel and interdisciplinary perspective by viewing the human mind as an information-processing system that continuously absorbs, filters, and internalizes information through subjective cost–benefit evaluations (Vuong and Nguyen, 2024). Mindsponege theory suggests that value can be conceptualized as information within the mind that is essential for sustaining an individual’s existence, including both concrete knowledge and abstract beliefs used to evaluate people, actions, events, and choices (Vuong and Nguyen, 2024). Values, under this framework, emerge through ongoing interactions between information particles in the mind and the surrounding environment, and can explain how individuals from diverse cultural or ecological backgrounds develop different values. This theoretical foundation provides critical support for expanding the perceived value framework to include environmental value, which is an increasingly relevant issue in today’s sustainability.

Accordingly, this study adopts perceived value as the foundational theoretical framework for the following reasons. First, perceived value is a well-established theoretical framework widely used for studying user satisfaction and continuance intention across different contexts, highlighting its relevance and applicability to theme park apps. Its proven effectiveness in understanding determinants of user satisfaction and continuance intention reinforces its suitability for this study. Second, it provides a comprehensive framework for this study by categorizing user perceptions of value into different dimensions. This multidimensional approach allows us to contextualize the value components to fit the context of theme park apps, and to expand the value dimensions by incorporating environmental value, aligning with the emerging trend of environmentally friendly practices in the studied context. By bridging traditional IS value models with the value formation process described in Mindsponge Theory, this study aims to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the drivers of user engagement with environmentally conscious digital platforms.

Research model and hypothesis

Following prior studies on perceived value, we propose that user satisfaction and continuance intention with a theme park app are affected by four dimensions of perceived value, including functional, hedonic, social, and environmental values. Specifically, perceived usefulness is conceptualized as a functional value, perceived enjoyment as a hedonic value, perceived social interaction as a social value, and perceived environmental friendliness as an environmental value. The definitions of these constructs are provided in Table 3. This study adopts variables from prior literature because the perceived value theory does not specify constructs to measure different value dimensions. Previous research has employed various variables to capture these dimensions, even when they originate from different theoretical paradigms. For instance, past studies have used perceived usefulness to represent functional value (e.g., Hsiao et al., 2016). As theme park apps offer features like interactive maps, event information, and booking services to streamline visits and enhance user performance, perceived usefulness is suitable for capturing functional value in this study. Perceived enjoyment has been used to reflect hedonic value in prior studies (e.g., Li et al., 2018). Many theme park apps incorporate entertaining elements such as appealing visuals, music, and videos to make the app enjoyable; therefore, perceived enjoyment is assumed to represent hedonic value. Perceived social interaction has been employed to capture social value in past research (e.g., Zhu et al., 2023). Theme park apps offer functions to facilitate communication and interaction with others; therefore, perceived social interaction fits well with the meaning of social value and can be proposed to reflect social value in this study. Finally, environmental friendliness is assumed to reflect environmental value, as the app’s use can reduce paper consumption in parks. The research model is presented in Fig. 1.

Table 3 Definitions of the constructs included in the model.
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Fig. 1
figure 1

The proposed research model.

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The positive influences of perceived usefulness on both satisfaction and continuance intention have been validated in various contexts, such as online banking services (Bhattacherjee, 2001), financial technology (Bergmann et al., 2023), and travel apps (Liu et al., 2023). These prior studies demonstrate that when users perceive an IS to be useful, they are likely to feel satisfied with the app and intend to sustain its usage. In the context of theme park apps, this is particularly relevant, as users can use the app to solve practical problems and enhance their overall experience in parks, such as reducing wait times, staying informed about recent events, and avoiding crowded areas. By addressing these practical issues effectively, theme park apps can boost user satisfaction and encourage sustained usage. Therefore, this study hypothesizes:

H1a: Perceived usefulness positively affects users’ satisfaction with the theme park app.

H1b: Perceived usefulness positively affects users’ continuance intention.

Nowadays, many IS providers increasingly incorporate enjoyable elements and features into their system designs to meet users’ hedonic needs, thereby forming user perceptions of enjoyment to enhance satisfaction levels and continuance intention (Lu et al., 2017; Van der Heijden, 2004). Numerous studies have reported positive outcomes from these efforts. For example, Hsiao et al. (2016) found that enjoyment significantly and directly influences satisfaction and continuance intention in the context of mobile social media. Regarding general travel apps, Liu et al. (2023) found that perceived enjoyment positively affects satisfaction, and Zhou et al. (2022) reported significant impacts on continuance intention. Similarly, in the context of theme park apps, various entertaining features, such as themed pictures, music, and games, are integrated to stimulate users’ enjoyment and fun. When users enjoy using such apps, they are likely to feel satisfied with the app and sustain their usage. Thus, this study hypothesizes:

H2a: Perceived enjoyment positively affects users’ satisfaction with the theme park app.

H2b: Perceived enjoyment positively affects users’ continuance intention.

Perceived social interaction has been viewed as an essential part of an IS to fulfill the basic human needs for connection and community (Wang and Chiang, 2009; Zhang et al., 2017). In prior studies, it has been identified as a determinant of continuance intention. For instance, Wang and Chiang (2009) reported a positive influence of social interaction on continuance in the context of online auctions. Zhang et al. (2017) found a similar positive impact on continuance intention in the context of social media. Perceived social interaction has also been found to promote user satisfaction with social media (Whiting and Williams, 2013). In the context of theme park apps, social interaction can include sharing experiences, posting reviews, engaging in discussions, and participating in community activities facilitated by the app. When users perceive that using these functions can satisfy their social needs, they are inclined to be satisfied with the app and continue using it. Therefore, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

H3a: Perceived social interaction positively affects users’ satisfaction with the theme park app.

H3b: Perceived social interaction positively affects users’ continuance intention.

Perceived environmental friendliness refers to the degree to which a user believes that using an app can help reduce waste and protect the environment (Chen et al., 2015). As environmental awareness grows, more people prioritize sustainability in their decision-making regarding an IS. According to Mindsponge theory, the human mind is conceptualized as an information-filtering system that continuously absorbs, evaluates, and retains information aligned with one’s core values (Nguyen et al., 2022; Vuong and Nguyen, 2024). When a theme park app is perceived as environmentally friendly, this information is more likely to be absorbed into the user’s cognitive system if it resonates with their internalized environmental values. Such value alignment enhances the perceived benefit of using the app, not just for personal utility but also for contributing to a broader social good. This, in turn, fulfills users’ eco-centric psychological needs and reinforces positive affect toward the app. Consequently, people are more likely to be satisfied with the app and intend to continue using it for the greater good of the public. Thus, this study hypothesizes:

H4a: Perceived environmental friendliness positively affects users’ satisfaction with the theme park app.

H4b: Perceived environmental friendliness positively affects users’ continuance intention.

According to the expectation confirmation theory, user satisfaction positively impacts IS continuance intention (Bhattacherjee, 2001). Such influence was confirmed in a wide range of IS contexts (Yan et al., 2021). Likewise, in the context of theme park apps, when users are satisfied with it, they are likely to continue using it. Therefore, this study hypothesizes:

H5: Satisfaction positively affects users’ continuance intention

In prior literature, cultural differences have been argued to influence individual behaviors (Coves-Martínez et al., 2023; McCoy et al., 2007). For instance, culture has been reported to moderate the impacts of motivators on satisfaction with general travel apps; specifically, for people from collectivistic, uncertainty-avoidant cultures like Spanish, perceived interaction exerts more significant influences on satisfaction than those from individualistic, non-uncertainty-avoidant cultures like Britain (Coves-Martínez et al., 2023). Similarly, in the context of mobile augmented reality, collectivistic, uncertainty-avoidant cultures like South Korea, displayed stronger dependence on hedonic features than those from Ireland with individualistic, non-uncertainty-avoidant cultures (Lee et al., 2015). Building on the influence of cultural differences on user behaviors, it is worth exploring the potential disparities between Chinese and European users in their interactions with apps. Given their distinct cultural backgrounds, these differences are likely to affect how users perceive value in apps and, consequently, their satisfaction and continuance intention levels. For example, Chinese users, shaped by cultural factors prioritizing social interaction and functionality, may emphasize perceived usefulness and social interaction more. In contrast, European users may focus more on hedonic aspects, such as perceived enjoyment. These cultural distinctions suggest that the relationship between perceived value and satisfaction, as well as between perceived value and continuance intention, may be moderated by cultural background, leading to potential differences in how various dimensions of perceived value impact satisfaction across these groups. Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H6: The relationship between perceived value and satisfaction is moderated by cultural background, such that the effects of perceived usefulness (H6a), perceived enjoyment (H6b), and perceived social interaction (H6c) on satisfaction are stronger among Chinese users than European users.

H7: The relationship between perceived value and continuance intention is moderated by cultural background, such that the effects of perceived usefulness (H7a), perceived enjoyment (H7b), and perceived social interaction (H7c) on continuance intention are stronger among Chinese users than European users.

Additionally, according to rankings of the most environmentally friendly countries in 2024, the top 10 are predominantly from Europe (WorldPopulationReview.com, 2024). This suggests that environmental consciousness is more deeply embedded in European cultures. Consequently, this study assumes that European users are more likely to prioritize eco-friendly practices than Chinese users. European users are more attuned to and appreciative of environmental sustainability efforts, making them more likely to derive satisfaction from apps and continue their app usage. Therefore, we propose:

H8: Perceived environmental friendliness will have a stronger impact on satisfaction (H8a) and continuance intention (8b) among European users than among Chinese users.

Method

Measurement

The measurements of all constructs included in the model were adopted from prior literature to ensure content validity (Wang and Sun, 2025; Wang et al., 2024). The initial pool of items was identified through an English-language literature review. A first version of the survey was developed in English and reviewed through a collaborative discussion among the authors. This version was then subjected to a pre-test with 17 respondents, whose feedback was used to revise item wording for clarity and contextual fit. Following this, the revised English version was translated into Chinese by the first author and subsequently reviewed by another bilingual IS researcher for linguistic accuracy and conceptual equivalence. A back-translation process was then conducted to ensure semantic consistency between the two language versions. A second pre-test involving 20 Chinese respondents was used to confirm the clarity, relevance, and readability of the translated items. Final adjustments were made to both language versions to enhance comprehensibility and contextual appropriateness for the target samples.

Specifically, the measurement items of perceived usefulness, satisfaction, and continuance intention were taken from the study of Bhattacherjee (2001). The items of perceived enjoyment and social interaction were adopted from studies by Venkatesh et al. (2012) and Kim et al. (2019), respectively. The items for measuring perceived environmental friendliness were from the work by Chen et al. (2015). All the measurement items are presented in the Appendix.

Data collection

The official survey was conducted in both China and Europe to explore potential cultural differences. In China, the Chinese survey was disseminated via popular social media platforms such as Weibo. In Europe, the initial distribution through Facebook and Instagram yielded a low response rate. Therefore, the survey was shifted to Prolific, a professional survey platform. We shifted to Prolific for several reasons. First, it enabled us to obtain an adequate and diverse sample size within a relatively short time frame. Second, it offers built-in quality control features, such as IP verification and attention checks, which help ensure the reliability and validity of responses. Third, Prolific allowed us to pre-screen participants based on geographic and demographic criteria, enhancing the relevance of the European sample to the study’s target population.

The survey comprised four parts: informed consent, demographic information, personal habits and experiences, and app usage perceptions. The informed consent form detailed the survey’s purpose, voluntary participation, confidentiality of information, and researchers’ contact information. Only respondents who agreed and confirmed their use of theme park apps proceeded to the survey. The second part collected basic demographic information. The third part focused on respondents’ habits and previous theme park experiences. The fourth part assessed respondents’ experiences with theme park apps, emphasizing their perceptions of their usefulness, enjoyment, and intention to continue using them. Two attention check questions (e.g., please select “disagree” or “agree” for this question) were incorporated into the survey to ensure respondents were attentive.

For the Chinese sample, data collection occurred from February 19 to February 29, 2024, resulting in 316 valid responses from an initial 378 responses. A total of 62 responses were excluded due to the following reasons: 8 respondents had never used a theme park app, 52 failed the first attention check, and 2 failed the second attention check. Participants were incentivized with red packets ranging from 2 to 10 RMB. Meanwhile, for the European sample, data were collected from February 23 to February 29, 2024, yielding 330 valid responses from an initial 358. A total of 28 responses were excluded: 21 respondents listed non-existent app names, and seven indicated they had never used the app. Participants were compensated through Prolific, receiving €1.22 each. Finally, a total of 646 valid responses were obtained for this study, comprising 316 from China and 330 from Europe. Among these respondents, 53.6% were female, 46.1% were male, and 0.3% preferred not to disclose their gender. Nearly half of the respondents (46.9%) were aged between 26 and 35. More than half of the respondents (52.6%) had bachelor’s degrees. A significant majority (83.2%) indicated they had been using theme park apps for over 3 years. When asked about their theme park visit frequency, 37.3% reported visiting once a year, 31.4% reported visiting less than once a year, and 26% reported visiting 2 to 3 times a year. Table 4 presents the respondents’ basic demographic information and theme park visit characteristics.

Table 4 The demographics of survey participants.
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Measurement invariance, common method bias, and collinearity

As the data were gathered from two platforms in two different areas, this study conducted an invariance test to check whether the measurement invariance exists in the two samples via the Measurement Invariance Assessment (MICOM) proposed by Henseler et al. (2016). The MICOM procedure follows a three-step approach to assess measurement invariance by examining: (1) configural invariance, (2) compositional invariance, and (3) equality of composite means and variances. Full measurement invariance is confirmed only when all three conditions are satisfied. As Table 5 shows, all c values, the difference in mean values, and the variance of the composites between China and Europe groups fall between the lower and upper bound for the 95% confidence interval; therefore, full measurement invariance was established (Henseler et al., 2016). Thus, pooling the two samples together and proceeding with the data analysis is safe.

Table 5 The results of Measurement Invariance Assessment (MICOM).
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The Harman’s single-factor test (Podsakoff et al., 2003) was used to check the common method bias, and the result showed that the greatest total variance for any factor was 43.033%, which was lower than 50%, therefore, common method bias was not a critical concern in this study. Additionally, a full collinearity test was employed, and the results show the values of variance inflation factors (VIFs) ranged from 1.618 to 2.934, lower than 3.3, suggesting that collinearity was not a severe issue in this study (Kock, 2015).

Data analysis

Measurement model

This study used SmartPLS 4 to test both measurement and structural models. The measurement model was tested through the examination of convergent validity and discriminant validity. Specifically, convergent validity was assessed using multiple metrics, including factor loadings, Cronbach’s alpha (CA), composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE) (Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Tenenhaus et al., 2005). As Table 6 shows, all items’ factor loadings exceeded 0.7. The CA values of all constructs were within the range of 0.845 and 0.964, which exceeded the suggested value of 0.7. CR values were between 0.849 and 0.965, exceeding the recommended value of 0.7. All AVE values were greater than 0.5. Therefore, convergent validity was established in this study (Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Tenenhaus et al., 2005).

Table 6 Assessment results of the measurement model.
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The discriminant validity was assessed through the cross-loading of each indicator (Chin, 1998), Fornell–Larcker criterion (Fornell and Larcker, 1981), and the heterotrait–monotrait ratio of correlation (HTMT) (Henseler et al., 2015). As Table 7 shows, the factor-loading of each indicator for its relevant construct was greater than the cross-loadings of the other constructs. Additionally, each construct’s correlations with other constructs were lower than the square root of its AVE (see Table 8). Moreover, HTMT values ranged from 0.278 to 0.786 (see Table 9), below 0.85. Therefore, discriminant validity was confirmed in this study.

Table 7 Results of cross-loadings.
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Table 8 Results of Fornell-Larcker criterion.
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Table 9 Results of Heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT) test.
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Structural model

The structural model was tested by assessing path significance, the hypotheses’ effects, and predictive relevance. Figure 2 shows the PLS path modeling results. The model explains 51.4% of the variance in continuance intention, and 30.7% of the variance in satisfaction. Perceived usefulness (β = 0.358, p < 0.001) and enjoyment (β = 0.261, p < 0.001) significantly positively affect satisfaction, while social interaction and environmental friendliness do not. Perceived usefulness (β = 0.437, p < 0.001), enjoyment (β = 0.114, p < 0.05), and environmental friendliness (β = 0.219, p < 0.001) significantly positively affect continuance intention, while social interaction does not. Satisfaction significantly influences continuance intention (β = 0.125, p < 0.001). therefore, H1a, H1b, H2a, H2b, H4b, and H5 are supported, while H3a, H3b, and H4a are not. Figure 2 presents the results.

Fig. 2
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The results of the proposed research model.

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Moderation analysis

As Table 10 shows, only a significant difference was found between Chinese and European users regarding the impact of perceived enjoyment on satisfaction and continuance intention. Specifically, perceived enjoyment exerts a stronger impact on satisfaction for European users (β = 0.346, p < 0.001) than for Chinese users (β = 0.144, p < 0.05). Perceived enjoyment significantly affects continuance intention only for Chinese users (β = 0.216, p < 0.05), but not for European users. Therefore, H6a, H6b, H6c, H7a, H7b, H7c, H8a, and H8b were not supported.

Table 10 Results of moderation analysis.
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Discussion

First, this study found that perceived environmental friendliness has a significantly positive impact on continuance intention but not on satisfaction. A possible explanation lies in the public good nature of environmental friendliness, which tends to align more with users’ long-term values than with their immediate experiential gratification. Users may continue using an app because they believe it contributes to a larger societal benefit, such as environmental sustainability, even if they do not see immediate personal gains. This finding can be further understood through the lens of Mindsponge Theory. According to the theory, the human mind acts as an information filtering system, continuously evaluating and integrating new information based on subjective cost–benefit judgments and alignment with the individual’s core values (Nguyen et al., 2022; Vuong and Nguyen, 2024). When users perceive that an app supports environmentally friendly practices, this information may be absorbed and retained within their cognitive framework if it resonates with deeply held pro-environmental values. However, because environmental friendliness often benefits the collective rather than the individual directly, it may not contribute to immediate satisfaction, which tends to be driven by more individual-centric values, such as usefulness or enjoyment. In contrast, perceived usefulness and enjoyment function as self-oriented value dimensions, more likely to satisfy immediate needs and generate positive affective responses. These values are typically absorbed through filters focused on personal benefit, making them more closely linked to satisfaction. Environmental value, in this case, operates as a long-term value—one that may not deliver short-term gratification but still plays a crucial role in shaping continuance intention.

Surprisingly, perceived social interaction does not influence either satisfaction or continuance intention in the context of theme park apps. This finding contrasts with previous research on social media, where social interaction with others is a significant driver of satisfaction and continuance intention (Shi et al., 2016). However, the finding aligns with prior studies on general travel apps, where perceived social interaction does not affect app satisfaction (İlkan et al., 2023). One possible explanation lies in the design orientation and user expectations of theme park apps. Unlike social media, where social interaction is central to the user experience, theme park apps are primarily a tool designed to facilitate the in-park experience. As a result, these apps may deprioritize social features or limit social functionalities to basic functions (e.g., sharing photos), thereby minimizing opportunities for meaningful interaction within the app. Additionally, users prefer sharing their experiences with their social networks through mainstream social media platforms like Facebook or WeChat, which offer broader audiences and richer social affordances. Therefore, theme park apps are viewed as a personal planning and managing tool, rather than a social channel, leading users to disengage from in-app social features that may be presented. Furthermore, the situational dynamics of theme park visits may also contribute to the diminished role of social interactions. Theme parks are typically highly immersive, time-sensitive, and physically demanding environments, where users are primarily focused on maximizing their physical experience, such as riding attractions or watching shows. This limits both the opportunity and the motivation to engage in real-time social interactions through the app. Consequently, social interaction plays a diminished role in shaping users’ satisfaction and continuance intention with theme park apps.

Third, we identified cultural differences in the impact of perceived enjoyment on satisfaction and continuance intention. The influence of perceived enjoyment on satisfaction is stronger for European users than Chinese users, contrasting with prior findings on general travel apps (Coves-Martínez et al., 2023). For the previous study, perceived enjoyment significantly impacted satisfaction primarily for users from collectivistic, uncertainty-avoidant cultures like Spain (Coves-Martínez et al., 2023). This discrepancy may be due to the specific context of theme park apps and the need for a more nuanced interpretation of cultural dimensions. Drawing on Hofstede’s cultural framework (Hofstede, 2001), prior studies suggest that many European cultures tend to be more individualistic and exhibit low uncertainty avoidance. Such cultures emphasize flexibility, independence, freedom, risk-taking, and tolerance (Hofstede, 2001). In these cultures, digital experiences that enhance personal enjoyment and entertainment are more likely to generate immediate satisfaction. Theme park apps, which often include entertainment content, may be particularly appealing to users who seek individual hedonic rewards from their digital tools. In contrast, users from China, often viewed in culture research as belonging to a more collectivistic and uncertainty avoidance culture, tend to place greater emphasis on their group identity and prioritize group norms and goals over personal preferences (Hofstede, 2001). These users may be more inclined to drive enjoyment from shared, in-person experiences (e.g., exploring the park together) rather than from digital platforms. As such, the app may be viewed more as a tool to support group experiences, rather than as a standalone source of pleasure. Moreover, unlike general travel apps where the digital interface may be central to the service experience, theme park apps are typically supplementary to enhance an already rich and immersive physical experience. For users from collectivist backgrounds, enjoyment is likely to be drawn from in-group social interactions and shared offline experiences, not from the app itself. In contrast, individualistic users are more likely to experience and evaluate enjoyment personally. For these users, enjoyment derived from the app contributes more to satisfaction, which aligns with their emphasis on self-oriented outcomes and personal gratification. Therefore, perceived enjoyment from the app plays a stronger role in shaping satisfaction among European users than Chinese users in our sample. It is important to note that these interpretations reflect general cultural tendencies identified in the literature and are applied here to interpret patterns observed within our study sample. It does not mean that all individuals within Europe or China conform to these traits. Indeed, both regions exhibit cultural differences, but a cleaner and more granular examination of within-region cultural variation would be a valuable direction for future research.

Furthermore, perceived enjoyment significantly impacts continuance intention for Chinese users but not Europeans in our study sample. This might be because perceived enjoyment indirectly influences continuance intention via satisfaction. Indeed, the post hoc mediation analysis showed that satisfaction fully mediates the impact of perceived enjoyment on continuance intention (indirect effect β = 0.076, p < 0.01; direct effect, β = 0.002, p > 0.05). For European users in our sample, the enjoyment alone may be insufficient to enhance their intention to continue the app usage; only when they feel satisfied are they likely to sustain the usage. These findings suggest that cultural context plays a crucial role in shaping how users respond to different aspects of an app, and that perceived enjoyment carries different psychological weights across cultures. This highlights the need for culturally adaptive design and communication strategies in theme park app development.

Fourth, perceived usefulness has a positive impact on both satisfaction and continuance intention, consistent with findings from prior studies on travel apps, where perceived usefulness has similarly been shown to play a crucial role in driving user satisfaction and continued usage (Liu et al., 2023; Malik and Rao, 2019). When users believe that a theme park app effectively enhances their visit performance, they are more likely to feel satisfied with the app and continue using it. This finding supports the idea that functional value remains a foundational driver of satisfaction and continuance intention, even in hedonic, experience-rich environments, such as theme parks. Despite the entertainment-oriented nature of the context, users still prioritize functional benefits that help optimize their visit performance.

Conclusion

Theoretical contribution

This study contributes to research on travel apps on several fronts. First, this study extends the perceived value framework by incorporating an environmental dimension grounded in Mindsponge Theory (Vuong and Nguyen, 2024), thereby broadening the conceptualization of value beyond traditional dimensions like functional, hedonic, and social values. By doing so, this study emphasizes that users may adopt and retain environmentally friendly technologies not solely for personal benefit, but because these align with deeply held societal values. This integration also offers a novel interdisciplinary perspective that captures both rational and value-driven motivations, thereby enriching our understanding of user satisfaction and continuance intention with theme park apps in an era of growing environmental sustainability awareness.

Second, the findings on cultural differences provide new insights into the role of culture in moderating the impact of hedonic value on satisfaction and continuance intention. Specifically, in more individualistic cultures, perceived enjoyment exerts a stronger influence on satisfaction, whereas in collectivistic, uncertainty-avoidant contexts, enjoyment plays a more limited role. This contributes to the literature by demonstrating that culture significantly influences how users perceive and respond to enjoyment, with varying effects on their satisfaction and long-term usage of apps. These findings underscore that hedonic value is not universally experienced or equally weighted across cultures. Instead, its impact is shaped by deeper cultural dimensions such as individualism/collectivism and uncertainty avoidance levels. By highlighting these distinctions, this study advances a more culture-sensitive understanding of user behaviors of theme park apps.

Third, by re-examining the role of perceived value in the specific context of theme park apps, this study emphasizes the importance of contextual factors in determining the impact of value dimensions on user satisfaction and continuance intention. The results suggest that the influence of perceived value is not uniform across different contexts, rather, the impact of each value dimension depends upon the nature and the purpose of the app services. In the context of theme park apps, functional value continues to be a key driver of satisfaction and continuance intention, as users prioritize features that enhance efficiency and optimize the park experience. In contrast, social value has a limited role, suggesting that direct social interaction features may be less relevant in this context. These insights contribute to the literature by reinforcing the need for context-sensitive examination of perceived value.

Practical implications

First, the finding that perceived environmental friendliness positively impacts continuance intention suggests that theme park operators should actively showcase the app’s environmental sustainability benefits. Rather than simply stating that the app can reduce paper waste, operators could communicate specific, measurable contributions, such as tracking the number of digital tickets issued, the amount of paper saved, and even offering visible “carbon footprint reduction” indicators to help users understand their environmental impacts by using the app.

Second, the finding regarding cultural differences in the perception of hedonic value offers actionable guidance for localizing app design strategies. For instance, in individualistic and low uncertainty avoidance culture, where enjoyment strongly influences satisfaction and exerts an indirect impact on continuance intention via satisfaction, developers should focus on creating highly engaging and entertaining app experiences. This can be achieved by incorporating features such as augmented reality enhancements, interactive storytelling, or visually immersive design elements that can increase users’ perceived enjoyment. Conversely, in collectivist and high uncertainty avoidance cultures, like China, where enjoyment is less central, apps should emphasize more functionality.

Third, the finding on the insignificant impact of perceived social interaction suggests that theme park operators could deprioritize social functions within their apps that facilitate direct communication between users. Instead, efforts could be more effectively directed toward integrating seamless sharing capabilities with popular social media platforms, allowing users to easily share their experiences on widely used social media networks, such as Facebook, WeChat, and TikTok. In so doing, operators can leverage the network effects of external platforms without diverting resources into developing native social features with limited user impact.

Limitations and future research direction

This study has limitations. First, this study may have overlooked other potential dimensions of perceived value beyond those examined, such as esthetic value, which could also play significant roles in influencing user satisfaction and continuance intention. Future research could explore these additional dimensions to provide a more comprehensive understanding of perceived value in the context of theme park apps. Second, the study relied solely on a survey method for data collection, which may limit the depth of insights obtained. Future research could benefit from using a mixed-method approach, incorporating qualitative methods such as interviews or focus groups to gain a deeper understanding of the underlying motivations and contextual factors influencing user perceptions. Third, the data sample was limited to users in China and Europe, which may restrict the generalizability of the findings to other cultural or geographical contexts. Moreover, Europe comprises a wide range of subcultures, which were not examined in this study. Future research should consider expanding the sample to include participants from additional regions and more granular cultural categories, enabling a more nuanced understanding of cross-cultural differences. Fourth, this study examined culture (China vs. Europe) as a moderator using a binary group comparison. However, future research could benefit from exploring more fine-grained, individual-level cultural constructs—such as individualism–collectivism and uncertainty avoidance—as potential mediators in the relationship between perceived value and user outcomes (e.g., satisfaction and continuance intention). Such an approach would offer deeper insights into the psychological mechanisms through which cultural values influence user behavior.