Table 3 Demographic information of the included final 75 papers
From: A scoping review of silent trials for medical artificial intelligence
Trial | Country | Institutions |
|---|---|---|
Organ failure: Aakre et al. (2017)21 | USA | Mayo Clinic hospitals in Rochester, MN, and Jacksonville, FL |
NLP for opioid use: Afshar et al. (2023)28 | USA | University of Wisconsin Hospital |
COVID-19: Alrajhi et al. (2022)75 | Kingdom of Saudi Arabia | King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre |
Appendicitis: Aydın et al. (2025)76 | Turkey | 13 tertiary paediatric hospitals across Turkey |
Sperm: Bachelot et al. (2023)77 | France | Assistance Publique-Hopitaux de Paris, Sorbonne University, Paris |
Sepsis: Bedoya et al. (2020)39 | USA | A hospital in the Duke University Health System |
Breast: Berg et al. (2023)78 | Mexico | Hospital Valentin Gomez Farias and Hospital General de Tijuana |
Mortality: Brajer et al. (2020)36 | USA | Duke University Health System |
Brain cancer: Butler et al. (2019)79 | UK | Western General Hospital, Edinburgh |
Lung cancer: Campanella et al. (2025)80 | USA | N/A |
Neoplasia: Chen et al. (2025)81 | China | N/A |
Hypertension: Cheng et al. (2025)82 | China | 4 Taklamakan Desert-adjacent regions in northwest China |
Haemodynamic instability: Chiang et al. (2025)83 | Taiwan | Taipei Veterans General Hospital |
Breast cancer: Chufal et al. (2025)84 | India | Rajiv Gandhi Cancer Institute & Research Centre |
Suicide risk: Coley et al. (2021)85 | USA | HealthPartners, Henry Ford Health System, Kaiser Permanente |
DEPLOYR (also a framework): Corbin et al. (2023)86 | USA | Stanford Health Care, Stanford, CA |
Lung: Dave et al. (2023)87 | Canada | London Health Sciences Center, London, Ontario |
Breast cancer: El Moheb et al. (2025)88 | USA | University of Virginia Medical Center |
Skin lesion: Escalé-Besa et al. (2023)24, using study protocol by Escalé-Besa et al. (2022)131 | Spain | Primary care centres managed by Institut Catala de la Salut, Catalonia |
Emergency department: Faqar-Uz-Zaman et al. (2022)89, using study protocol by Faqar-Uz-Zaman et al. (2021)132 | Germany | University Hospital Frankfurt |
Skin cancer: Felmingham et al. (2022)90 and results paper by Felmingham et al. (2023)133 | Australia | Alfred Hospital and Skin Health Institute, Melbourne |
Chest: Feng et al. (2025)91 | China | Tangshan People’s Hospital |
Head injury: Hanley et al. (2017)92 | USA | Allegheny General Hospital, Pittsburgh, PA; Baylor University Medical Center, Dallas, TX; Detroit Receiving Hospital, Detroit, MI; Emory University School of Medicine and Grady Memorial Hospital, Atlanta, GA; Hartford Hospital, Hartford, CT; R Adams Cowley Shock Trauma Center, Baltimore, MD; University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY; University of Texas Memorial Hermann Hospital, Houston, TX; University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA; Washington University Barnes Jewish Medical Center, St. Louis, MO; Wayne State University Sinai-Grace Hospital, Detroit, MI |
Sepsis: Hoang et al. (2025)93 | Australia | N/A |
Lymphoma: Im et al. (2018)94 | USA | Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA |
Delirium: Jauk et al. (2020)19 | Austria | LKH Graz II |
Chest: Kim et al. (2023)10 | South Korea | N/A |
Pancreas: Korfiatis et al. (2023)95 | USA | N/A |
Malnutrition: Kramer et al. (2024)96 | Austria | University Hospital Graz |
Hydronephrosis: Kwong et al. (2022)97 | Canada | Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario |
Pain prediction: Liu et al. (2023)98 | USA | Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA |
Bone age: Liu et al. (2024)99 | China | Children’s Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Children’s Hospital of Fudan University, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Xi’an Children’s Hospital Affiliated to Xi’an Jiaotong University, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Children’s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Shenzhen Children’s Hospital, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College of Huazhong University of Science and Technology |
Gastrointestinal: Luo et al. (2019)100 | China | Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, North Guangdong People’s Hospital, Shaoguan; Wuzhou’s Red Cross Hospital, Wuzhou; Jiangxi Cancer Hospital, Nanchang; Puning People’s Hospital, Puning; Jieyang People’s Hospital, Jieyang |
COVID-19: Lupei et al. (2022)101 | USA | N/A |
Postoperative: Mahajan et al. (2023)102 | USA | 20 hospitals in the University Pittsburgh Medical Center health network |
End of life: Major et al. (2020)103 | USA | NYU Langone Health |
Morality: Manz et al. (2020)16 | USA | University of Pennsylvania Health System (multiple practices) |
Chest: Miró Catalina et al. (2024)104, using protocol by Miró Catalina et al. (2022)134 | Spain | Osana Primary Care Centre Catalonia |
Kidney disease: Morse et al. (2022)27 | USA | Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital, Stanford University |
Shock: Nemeth et al. (2023)37 | USA | Mayo Clinic |
Deterioration: O’Brien et al. (2020)105 | USA | Duke University Hospital System |
Cardiac: Ouyang et al. (2020)32 | USA | Cedars-Sinai Medical Center |
Traumatic brain injury: Pan et al. (2025)106 | China | Wuhan Yangtze River Shipping General Hospital |
Early warning system: Pou-Prom et al. (2022)34 | Canada | St Michael’s Hospital, Toronto, Ontario |
Type 2 diabetes: Pyrros et al. (2023)107 | USA | Emory Hospital and 28 geographically unique locations |
Enema: Qian et al. (2025)108 | China | Children’s Hospital of Soochow University and Affiliated Changzhou Children’s Hospital of Nantong University |
Atrial fibrillation: Rajakariar et al. (2020)25 | Australia | N/A |
Bacterial infection: Rawson et al. (2021)109 | UK | Three hospitals in northwest London |
COVID-19: Razavian et al. (2020)33 | USA | N/A |
Paediatric: Ren et al. (2025)110 | China | Obstetrics & Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University |
Blood cultures: Schinkel et al. (2022)111 | The Netherlands | Amsterdam UMC Location VU Medical Center |
Deterioration: Shah et al. (2021)112 | USA | Four PennMedicine hospitals |
COVID-19: Shamout et al. (2021)113 | USA | NYU Langone Health Institute |
Paediatric ICU: Shelov et al. (2018)38 | USA | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia |
Blood pressure: Sheppard et al. (2018)29, using study protocol by Sheppard et al. (2016)135 | UK | Ten general practice surgeries and one hospital trust |
Polyps: Shi et al. (2025)114 | China | Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University |
Breast: Smith et al. (2024)115 | UK | Hospital—N/A |
Pregnancy: Stamatopoulos et al. (2025)116 | N/A | N/A |
Sepsis: Stephen et al. (2023)20 | USA | Hospital—N/A |
COVID-19: Swinnerton et al. (2025)117 | USA | EHR data from Veterans Affairs facilities nationwide |
Burn: Tan et al. (2025)26 | UK | Newcastle upon Tyne and Manchester Adult Burn Centres |
Bone density: Tariq et al. (2023)118 | USA | N/A |
Neurological events: Titano et al. (2018)119 | USA | Hospital—N/A |
COVID-19: Vaid et al. (2020)120 | USA | Five hospitals within the Mount Sinai Health System in New York City: Mount Sinai Hospital (MSH) located in East Harlem, Manhattan; Mount Sinai Morningside (MSM) located in Morningside Heights, Manhattan; Mount Sinai West (MSW) located in Midtown West, Manhattan; Mount Sinai Brooklyn (MSB) located in Midwood, Brooklyn; and Mount Sinai Queens (MSQ) located in Astoria, Queens |
Radiation therapy: Wall et al. (2022)121 | USA | Unknown local institution |
Breast cancer: Wan et al. (2025)122 | China | Renji Hospital |
Lung cancer: Wang et al. (2019)123 | USA | Hospitals in Maine |
Cardiology: Wang et al. (2025)124 | China | Zigong Fourth People’s Hospital |
Epilepsy: Wissel et al. (2020)125 | USA | Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center |
Respiratory failure: Wong et al. (2021)30 | USA | Emory Healthcare Network |
Arthritis: Xie et al. (2025)126 | China | N/A |
Mortality: Ye et al. (2019)127 | USA | Berkshire Health System |
Liver surgery: Ye et al. (2020)128 | China | Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital (EHBH) |
Sepsis: Yu et al. (2022)129 | USA | Single, tertiary-care academic medical centre in St. Louis, MO |
Cardiovascular: Zhang et al. (2025)130 | China | Shanghai Sixth People’s Hospital |
