Introduction

The apparel industry is widely acknowledged as one of the most environmentally damaging industries globally (Dangelico et al. 2022). Environmental damage occurs at different stages of the clothing production cycle, including processes such as fiber manufacturing, fabric dyeing, and product disposal, leading to a substantial increase in greenhouse gas emissions and hastening climate change (Bakis and Kitapci 2023; Kaur et al. 2023). Recent studies (Niinimäki et al. 2020; Karaboyaci 2014) showed that the fashion industry contributes approximately 10% of global annual carbon emissions and is responsible for around 20% of industrial wastewater discharge worldwide. Green apparel effectively mitigates the environmental impact of traditional garment production by advocating for fair trade, avoiding toxic ingredients, and employing innovative and eco-friendly materials, such as recycled fabrics, to conserve natural resources, and its production process minimizes harm to both human health and the environment (Bakis and Kitapci 2023; Dangelico et al. 2022).

As environmental awareness rises (Bai et al. 2024; Lee and Lee 2024), a growing number of consumers are directing their focus towards the merits of green clothing. With growing consumer interest in green fashion, studying purchasing behavior of eco-friendly clothing is essential to foster the sustainable development within the fashion industry and boost market share, while offering guidance for business managers (Ray and Nayak 2023; Dangelico et al. 2022). While there is a growing number of consumers showing a positive inclination towards green apparel, the majority fail to factor in the environmental sustainability of their clothing purchases (Riesgo et al. 2023; Busalim et al. 2022). Indeed, there is a significant intention-behavior gap in the field of green fashion consumption (Bai et al. 2024). The consumption logic for green apparel differs from that of most eco-friendly products. As noted by Nilssen et al. (2019), there exists no direct correlation between the inclination to consume organic food and green clothing. The consumer demand for green apparel is distinctive (Kumar ānd Yadav 2021), primarily due to the unique attributes of clothing.

This preference for self-expression through fashion finds theoretical grounding in Lamb and Kallal’s (1992) framework, which posits that clothing consumption is driven by consumers’ functional, expressive, and aesthetic requirements. Expressive needs are closely linked to an individual’s social role, status, and self-esteem, while aesthetic needs are closely tied to artistic and design attributes (Lamb and Kallal 1992). The aesthetic and expressive requirements can be viewed as the non-functional requirements (NFR) for clothing. Functional requirements are mainly concerned with the performance of clothing, while NFR embody the distinctive contextual aspects of fashion consumption. Several studies (Behre and Cauberghe 2024; Gong et al. 2020) have indicated that in fashion, non-functional values (e.g. emotional appeal) take precedence over the functional value of products. In addition to providing physical protection, consumers seek to express who they are or who they want to be through clothing choices (Bakis and Kitapci 2023; Niinimäki 2010), and green apparel is no exception. Consumers aspire for their purchasing behavior to adhere to ethical standards, while exhibiting a heightened desire to be perceived as ‘appropriate’, unique, and ‘stylish’ (Jung et al. 2020). The selection of green clothing by consumers can be regarded as a trade-off between ethical perception and their non-functional needs, with the latter consistently taking precedence (Riesgo et al. 2023). Manufacturers and retailers often place a greater emphasis on the environmental advantages of eco-friendly clothing (Busalim et al. 2022), while overlooking the fact that consumer desire, rather than guilt, is the primary driving force for fashion purchases (Grappi et al. 2024; Yin et al. 2022). Therefore, it is essential to comprehend consumers’ green apparel purchasing behavior from the perspective of their NFR. It is evident that the majority of consumers who fail to choose green clothing are not lacking in environmental awareness. Indeed, previous research on green apparel purchase has documented several antecedents, especially in the aspect of NFR, but these efforts remain fragmented. Consumers often value green apparel for its environmental benefits but hesitate when they fear the products look unstylish, tacky, or obsolete (Behre and Cauberghe 2024; Rausch and Kopplin 2021). Studies have linked purchase intention to isolated factors such as hedonistic values (Behre and Cauberghe 2024; Hyun et al. 2021), conspicuous motives (Chao and Yu 2024; Lee and Lee 2024), responsibility attribution (Tandon et al. 2023), emotional needs (Tung et al. 2017), and innovation symbols (Bakis and Kitapci, 2023). However, these works examine single drivers in isolation (Khan et al. 2023) and do not integrate them into a cohesive framework that explains how non-functional requirements shape attitudes and, subsequently, purchase intention.

To bridge the gap between ethical values and consumption behavior, recent studies (e.g., Mishra et al. 2023) highlight the role of psychological ownership of the environment (POE) on pro-environmental behavior. POE refers to an individual’s sense of ‘ownership’ over the environment, leading to a stronger personal connection with the environment and motivating more environmentally responsible choices (Mishra et al. 2021). POE, the belief that individuals perceive nature as an integral part of themselves, encourages consumers to adopt a more conscious approach to their consumption (Potdar et al. 2018). Individuals with conscious consumption intention are inclined to sustain their eco-friendly consumption behavior (de Lira and da Costa 2022). We are seeking to establish the correlation between the NFR of green apparel and the environmental belief of POE, thus encouraging positive attitudes and long-term pro-environmental behavior. The green fashion industry is expanding in response to market demand, yet the stereotypes and stigma associated with design remain significant barriers to its mainstream adoption (Harris et al. 2016). Due to insufficient comprehension, many consumers hold the misconception that green clothing lacks aesthetic appeal (Rausch and Kopplin 2021). For example, Jung et al. (2020) found that Chinese consumers’ preconceived notions of eco-friendly clothing as tedious and obsolete significantly reduce their adoption willingness. Therefore, if the exposure and display (ED) of green apparel increases to enhance consumer familiarity with the products, it is worthwhile to further investigate whether they can translate the perceived benefits of green clothing into more positive sustainable purchase intentions.

Integrating these insights, our study aims to explain the green apparel purchase intention-behavior gap by jointly accounting for consumers’ NFR, their POE, and product ED. Drawing from the above analysis, new research should comprehensively consider consumers’ NFR for green apparel, integrating established consumer behavior theories to systematically investigate the antecedents of consumers’ green apparel purchase intentions, while exploring the roles of POE and ED. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) is extensively employed in current research on pro-environmental behavior. Our study is grounded in the TPB model and aims to enrich its capacity for explaining consumers’ purchase intentions for green clothing by introducing new variables. Specifically, by considering consumers’ NFR for green apparel (i.e., expressive and aesthetic requirements) and drawing on the non-functional value dimensions in the consumption values theory (CVT) proposed by Sheth et al. (1991), we outline the NFR of green apparel as social belonging, social uniqueness, aesthetic pleasure, and innovative perception. These factors will be integrated as additional variables into the TPB model, thus forming a new framework. Meanwhile, we also explore the mediating effect of POE and the moderating role of ED of green apparel. This paper is primarily focused on investigating three key issues: (1) Can the extended TPB model effectively capture consumers’ purchase intentions for green apparel by integrating NFR variables (i.e., social belonging, social uniqueness, aesthetic pleasure, and innovative perception)? (2) Does the POE play a mediating role between consumers’ NFR and their attitudes towards green apparel? (3) Can the ED of products act as a moderator between consumers’ attitudes and their purchase intentions towards green apparel?

For the first time, this study embeds the four-dimensional construct of NFR alongside POE and ED within the TPB, creating a decision framework tailored to green apparel that consolidates previously fragmented insights. This study makes three contributions of both theoretical and practical significance. First, it extends the Theory of Planned Behavior through the development of an innovative ‘NFR-POE-Intention’ framework for green apparel, where we not only establish NFR as fundamental attitude drivers but also reveal POE as the novel psychological mechanism that transforms symbolic motives into purchase intentions. Second, it advances green fashion theory by demonstrating how product ED functions as a critical moderator that mitigates design-related stigma effects, thereby addressing the persistent attitude-behavior gap in green apparel consumption. Third, the findings offer direct guidance for fashion designers, retail managers, and marketing professionals on stimulating sustainable fashion adoption through strategies that align product attributes with consumers’ intrinsic desires and environmental benefits.

Theoretical background and research hypotheses

Extended TPB model and CVT theory

TPB theory, a commonly used social psychology model for understanding consumer purchase behavior (Ajzen 1991), is also widely applied as a theoretical framework in the study of pro-environmental behavior. According to TPB theory, an individual’s behavioral intention can be predicted by their attitudes, perceived behavioral control (PBC), and subjective norms (Wang et al. 2024; Ajzen 1991). Subjective norms primarily concern an individual’s view of their behavior conforming to specific societal norms or being endorsed by others (Riesgo et al. 2023). At a certain level, social values can serve as a representation of subjective norms (Dangelico et al. 2022). PBC is about an individual’s evaluation of the perceived challenge in achieving a specific behavior based on past experiences and expected obstacles (Dangelico et al. 2022; Ajzen, 1991). Attitude, as an evaluative belief of behavioral outcomes, reflects an individual’s assessment of the favorable or unfavorable attributes of specific behaviors (Ajzen 1991). While the TPB provides a robust framework for understanding rational decision-making processes, scholars have noted its limitations in fully accounting for the emotional and identity-based dimensions that characterize sustainable consumption behaviors (Carfora et al. 2016; Klöckner 2013). To address these limitations, we extend the traditional TPB model by incorporating insights from the Consumption Values Theory (CVT) (Sheth et al. 1991). The extended TPB model can be applied to investigate consumers’ attitudes and behaviors within specific contexts, such as green apparel consumption (Kaur et al. 2023; Xue and Li 2023).

A consumer’s green apparel purchasing behavior can be interpreted as a means to meet their non-functional requirements (NFR) by obtaining the non-functional value of green clothing. This is in line with the proposition of the CVT. The CVT was first hypothesized by Sheth et al. (1991), and the theory was subdivided into functional and non-functional value dimensions in further research (Han et al. 2017). The non-functional value is primarily associated with social needs, pleasurable experience, and innovation awareness when making a purchase (Han et al. 2017). The CVT can be effectively applied to the analysis of environmentally friendly behavior. For example, Han et al. (2017) studied three non-functional value dimensions - social, emotional, and epistemic values - and their influence on attitudes and purchase intentions towards electric vehicles. Similarly, Bakis and Kitapci (2023) combined the symbolic meanings and non-functional values of green apparel, exploring their impact on consumers’ purchase intents from the perspectives of status, fashion, and innovation. Drawing on the non-functional value proposition put forward by Sheth et al. (1991) and Han et al. (2017), and considering consumers’ expressive and aesthetic requirements of green apparel, we define consumers’ NFR for green apparel as social requirements, aesthetic pleasure, and innovative perception. Moreover, given the complexity of social requirements in clothing, we further segmented the social requirements, and ultimately delineated consumers’ NFR for green apparel across four dimensions: social belonging, social uniqueness, aesthetic pleasure, and innovative perception. We integrated these four dimensions as the antecedents of attitude into the TPB model to form a new research framework. Furthermore, we integrate psychological ownership of the environment (POE), a concept empirically validated by Pierce et al. (2003), to account for identity-based motivations. These motivations complement the TPB model’s existing cognitive components, thereby providing a more comprehensive framework for understanding sustainable fashion consumption.

Attitude and purchase intention

In terms of pro-environmental behavior, several studies (e.g., Han et al. 2017) have demonstrated that attitudes have the most significant direct influence on green purchase intentions, while others (e.g., Bakis and Kitapci 2023) indicated that attitudes are the only direct antecedent of purchase intentions. In the field of green clothing research, multiple studies (e.g., Kaur et al. 2023) have shown the positive correlation between attitudes and consumers’ purchase intentions by employing the TPB theory as a theoretical framework.

Therefore, we propose H1 as follows:

H1. Attitude toward green apparel positively influences purchase intention.

Social belonging, social uniqueness and attitude

As a significant social symbol, clothing plays a crucial role in human interpersonal communication in social contexts (Kaiser 1990). Consumers treat apparel as a tool for projecting their identity and expressing their social connections with others (Niinimäki 2010). This is known as the social value of clothing, and the same holds true for green apparel. The social cues conveyed through fashion have the potential to shape consumers’ preferences towards environmentally sustainable consumption (Behre and Cauberghe 2024). Bai et al. (2024) proposed that within the context of social identity, environmentally conscious fashion consumers seek to express their sense of belonging and self-expression through green clothing. And according to Behre and Cauberghe (2024), the social value of a sustainable fashion brand lies in its ability to serve as a symbol of social acceptance and enable individuals to express their unique identities. It is evident that consumers desire green apparel to signify their association with social groups while also expressing their distinctive individuality (Niinimäki 2010). Based on the above analysis, the following part will discuss their connections to green apparel attitudes from the perspectives of social belonging and social uniqueness.

  1. (1)

    Social belonging

    According to social identity theory, individuals derive self-worth through group affiliation and collective identity formation (Davis et al. 2019). In society, individuals aspire to form connections with others (Deci and Ryan 2000), and their outward appearance (particularly their clothing) can assist them in gaining recognition from others (Niinimäki 2010). Belk (2013) further posited that in the context of symbolic consumption, products can serve as an extended form of self. Green apparel, as a socially visible product, allows individuals to express their environmental identity to others and seek acceptance from environmental organizations (Park and Lin 2020). Being perceived as a part of an environmental group is believed to have a substantial impact on consumers’ pro-environmental behaviors (Urbanska et al. 2022). Research has shown that a well-defined group identity can significantly influence consumers’ attitudes towards eco-friendly products (Rambabu et al. 2023). Griskevicius et al. (2010) observed that when a consumer’s environmental identity motivation is activated, they are inclined to prefer green products over luxury goods. According to Mishra et al. (2023), consumers who exhibit a heightened concern for their environmental identity and image are more inclined to demonstrate stronger preference for green fashion products.

    Hence, we hypothesize:

    H2. Social belonging positively affects attitudes toward green apparel.

  2. (2)

    Social uniqueness

Clothing, as a visible symbol, enables consumers to express their individuality and uniqueness to society, thereby demonstrating their distinctiveness (Ray and Nayak 2023; Kaiser 1990). This attribute also applies to green apparel. Self-expression theory posits that individuals communicate distinctive identities through consumption behaviors (Marcus 2008). Consumers are interested in green apparel not only to demonstrate their environmental consciousness, but also to express their distinctive personal style (Xiao et al. 2023; Niinimäki, 2010), reflecting the distinctive context of fashion consumption (Lee and Lee 2024). Consumers desire the freedom to express themselves (Blijlevens and Hekkert 2019), and self-oriented factors, such as self-expression, can positively impact consumers’ attitudes towards green clothing (Bakis and Kitapci 2023). Self-discrepancy theory proposes that consumers utilize products to bridge the gap between their actual self and ideal self (Higgins 1987). Purchasing sustainable apparel can make consumers more ‘noticeable’ in society, and they aspire to have more sophisticated and environmentally friendly garments that make them stand out and different from the crowd (Jung et al. 2020). Lee and Lee (2024) observed that environmentally conscious consumers who identify themselves as trendsetters in fashion tend to hold a more favorable attitude towards green apparel.

Therefore, the hypothesis is proposed:

H3. Social uniqueness has a positive impact on attitudes towards green apparel.

Aesthetic pleasure and attitude

Aesthetic pleasure is a pleasant emotion that arises when consumers’ aesthetic requirements or expectations are met (Blijlevens et al. 2017). The hedonic consumption model demonstrates that aesthetic stimuli directly elicit emotional responses and subsequently influence product evaluations (Lee et al. 2009). For apparel, aesthetic pleasure is the sense of enjoyment obtained from the aesthetic aspects of clothing design (Lamb and Kallal 1992). In the context of fashion consumption, the aesthetic appeal of products consistently exerts a greater influence on consumers compared to other factors (Ray and Nayak 2023; Khare 2020). This rule also extends to green apparel. Compared to environmental factors, the aesthetic design of green apparel is considered a more relevant attribute associated with sustainable fashion purchase behavior (Wang et al. 2023). Consumers expect green clothing to offer the same high-quality appearance and fashionable style as traditional apparel on aesthetic grounds (Niinimäki 2010). Meeting consumers’ aesthetic requirements is a crucial aspect in the production of green apparel (Beard, 2008). Hekkert (2014) suggested that products with visually attractive designs tend to be perceived as more valuable. This has been corroborated by neuroaesthetics research that establishes a direct linkage between visual appeal and purchase motivation (Reimann et al. 2010). Consumers’ recognition of the product value contributes to their favorable assessments of sustainable clothing (Busalim et al. 2022). Furthermore, consumers’ aesthetic pleasure is a pleasant emotion based on the satisfaction of the aesthetic demand, and as a positive emotion, pleasure serves as a significant motivation for consumers to make purchases of green apparel (Clarke and Holt 2016). Research has shown that positive emotions have a favorable influence on consumers’ attitudes towards green products (Chao and Yu 2024).

Thus, we propose the following hypothesis:

H4. Aesthetic pleasure positively influences attitudes toward green apparel.

Innovative perception and attitude

Luomala et al. (2020) demonstrated that the innovative perception of products, such as novel appearances, advanced technologies, and new knowledge, serves as the main motivation for consumers to switch from traditional products to green alternative. The diffusion theory posits that an individual’s relative early adoption tendency (innovativeness) constitutes a key adopter characteristic (Rogers 2004). Lee and Lee (2024) suggested that consumers who are attentive to their personal fashion and trend image are more inclined to purchase innovative products to affirm their forward-thinking and stylish identity. Self-determination theory posits that the sense of competence gained through optimally challenging activities (e.g., mastering new trends) enhances intrinsic motivation (Flannery 2017). Green apparel is undoubtedly a product that has been produced with the support of new technologies and knowledge, and due to the different manufacturing methods, some products also exhibit distinctive appearances. Some consumers view green clothing as a sign of their engagement with the latest products and technologies in the market (Khare 2020). Driven by a sense of curiosity and exploration, some consumers purchase green clothing to show their innovative personalities and creativity (Mukendi et al. 2020; Niinimäki, 2010). Zibenberg et al. (2018) indicated that individuals possessing a strong sense of curiosity and creativity are more inclined to participate in pro-environmental activities.

Hence, we propose H5 as follows:

H5. Innovative perception has a positive influence on attitudes towards green apparel.

The mediation effect of POE

Pierce et al. (2003) propose that psychological ownership emerges through three interrelated mechanisms: exercising control over, developing deep knowledge of, and investing one’s self into the target object. POE refers to the sense of ‘it’s mine’ that individuals experience when they perceive a close connection between themselves and the environment. This sense is driven by personal values and preferences rather than external pressure (Lim 2017), motivating consumers to invest more effort in environmentally beneficial behaviors (Mishra et al. 2023). Due to the greater investment of time, effort, and intelligence, this eco-friendly behavior is less likely to be easily abandoned (de Lira and da Costa 2022; Matilainen et al. 2017). Self-determination theory elucidates how the fulfillment NFR through POE generates intrinsic motivation for sustainable attitudes. Individuals use their ownership of products to express who they are and what they want society to see them as (Pierce et al. 2003). This coincides with consumers’ NFR for clothing. Specifically, we believe that green apparel enhances the connection between consumers and the natural environment (i.e., the POE), by showing consumers’ environmentally-conscious and innovative fashion identities, encouraging their self-expression, and providing a sense of pleasure. The sense of ownership over the environment based on psychological and identity aspects raises consumers’ sensitivity towards environmental protection (Matilainen et al. 2017), and foster a positive consumer perception towards sustainable consumption (Mishra et al. 2021). The psychological drive to pursue sustainable development encourages consumers to adopt a more positive disposition towards green apparel (Dhir et al. 2021). Therefore, we believe that meeting consumers’ NFR for green apparel can enhance their POE, and raise environmental awareness to promote more conscious consumption, thereby improving consumers’ attitudes towards green apparel, and driving green purchasing behavior.

Therefore, the following hypotheses are put forward:

  • H6. POE positively affects attitudes toward green apparel.

  • H7. The NFR for green apparel positively influences POE.

  • H7a. The social belonging of green apparel positively influence POE.

  • H7b. The social uniqueness of green apparel positively influence POE.

  • H7c. The aesthetic pleasure of green apparel positively influence POE.

  • H7d. The innovative perception of green apparel positively influence POE.

The moderating effect of ED of green apparel

The mere exposure effect demonstrates that repeated exposure to a stimulus cultivates preference formation (Boerman et al. 2012). Previous research has indicated that the familiarity of consumers with green products positively impacts their PBC (Notani 1998). And the familiarity with green apparel can be employed as a representation of PBC (Dangelico et al. 2022). Sprott et al. (2023) suggest that when consumers lack motivation to evaluate sustainability details, visually appealing displays serve as a peripheral cue to influence purchasing behavior. An increase in consumers’ perceived product familiarity can significantly influence their confidence in product selection and their determination to make a purchase decision (Ferraro et al. 2016). Wang and Lee (2021) demonstrated that a moderate increase in product exposure can enhance consumers’ familiarity with the product, leading to preference and positive choices. Given that the stigma and stereotypes linked to green fashion design are significant barriers to the development of the green apparel industry (Harris et al. 2016), we hypothesize that ED of green apparel would potentially influence consumers’ attitudes and purchase intentions, thereby promoting a transformation from attitudes to purchase intentions.

Drawing from the analysis above, we put forward H8 as follows:

H8. The ED of green apparel serves as a moderating factor in the relationship between attitudes towards green apparel and purchase intention.

Our extended TPB model reconfigures the original framework to better capture green apparel consumption dynamics. First, attitude stands as the sole direct antecedent of purchase intention (H1), given its established primacy in fashion decisions. Second, we reconceptualize subjective norms through clothing’s role in self-expression and identity projection: social belonging (H2) and uniqueness (H3) reflect internalized self-concept needs, while aesthetic pleasure (H4) and innovative perception (H5) dimensions capture personal expression—with POE mediating these identity-attitude linkages (H6,H7). Third, we reconceptualize PBC through ED, establishing it as a key moderator between attitude and purchase intention (H8). In fashion consumption, repeated product exposure strengthens familiarity, which in turn critically enables the conversion of positive attitudes into actual purchase intentions. Figure 1 presents the conceptual model based on the proposed hypotheses, where solid lines represent the original components of the TPB framework, while dashed lines indicate extended or modified elements.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Conceptual model.

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Method

Study design

This study adopted a cross-sectional survey design to investigate green apparel purchasing behavior among consumers in Shanghai, China. The measurement instruments were adapted from validated scales in existing literature, with cultural and contextual modifications implemented through a rigorous forward-backward translation process (Asghar et al. 2024) followed by expert review. A pilot test involving 100 participants confirmed the reliability and clarity of all measurement questions before full-scale administration. The complete measurement framework is presented in Table 1.

Table 1 Scale development.
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Population and sampling

The target population consisted of permanent Shanghai residents of Chinese nationality who had purchased at least one green apparel product within the previous 12 months. Shanghai was selected as the research site due to its established position as China’s primary fashion industry center and its representative consumer base. Using a convenience sampling approach through the Wenjuanxing professional survey platform, we obtained 466 valid responses, exceeding the minimum sample size requirements for structural equation modeling (Hair et al. 2010) and aligning with comparable studies in sustainable consumption research (e.g., Tandon et al. 2023).

Data collection procedure

Data collection occurred between December 2023 and March 2024 using standardized encrypted electronic questionnaires. The instrument comprised two sections: demographic information and 25 core measurement questions assessed via 7-point Likert scales (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). Stringent quality control measures were implemented, including screening answers to verify participant eligibility, guaranteed anonymity protocols, and a detailed informed consent procedure outlining research objectives, data usage policies, and voluntary participation terms. The study complied with all relevant data protection regulations and received institutional ethics approval.

Data analysis

Analyses were performed using IBM SPSS 27.0 and AMOS 28.0 statistical software. The analytical process began with confirmatory factor analysis to establish measurement model validity, followed by structural equation modeling (SEM) to test the hypothesized relationships. SEM was selected as the primary analytical approach due to its demonstrated effectiveness in handling latent constructs while controlling for measurement error, as well as its capacity to examine complex variable relationships simultaneously (Hair et al. 2010).

Result

Sample demographics

The demographic characteristics of the participants are detailed in Table 2. As shown in Table 2, the male-to-female ratio among participants was 44.8% to 55.2%, aligning with China’s gender distribution (105:100). Furthermore, the majority of participants were aged between 21 and 49 years, consistent with the age demographics of China’s population (63.35% aged 15–59). This indicates that the selected sample is representative of the general population. The above data were derived from the 2020 China Population Census.

Table 2 Demographics characteristics of the participants (N = 466).
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Measurement instrument validation

The first step of the study is to test the reliability and validity of the measurement tool. The analysis showed that the Cronbach’s alpha for all constructs was above the recommended standard of 0.7 (Hair et al. 2010), indicating that the data’s reliability level met the standard. Factor loadings for all the items exceeded 0.7 (Hair et al. 2010), and were statistically significant (p < 0.05), implying a strong correlation between all factors and the constructs being analyzed. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) further confirmed acceptable convergent validity, with all constructs demonstrating average variance extracted (AVE) values above 0.5 and composite reliability (CR) values exceeding 0.7 (Fornell and Larcker 1981). The results of the data analysis are presented in Table 3.

Table 3 Reliability summary table for different variables.
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Discriminant validity was rigorously assessed using the heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT), with all values below the conservative threshold of 0.85. Additionally, all inter-construct correlations were lower than the square root of their respective AVE values, confirming strong discriminant validity (see Table 4) (Asif et al. 2024; Fornell and Larcker 1981).

Table 4 Discriminant validity of the measurement tool.
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Common method bias (CMB)

To address potential common method bias, Harman’s single-factor test was conducted, revealing that the maximum variance explained was 11.77%, below the 50% threshold (Podsakoff et al. 2012). Furthermore, variance inflation factor (VIF) assessments confirmed that all values were within acceptable limits (VIFs < 2.5). These results indicate that the study was not significantly affected by common method bias, ensuring the reliability of the analytical findings.

Structural model and hypothesis testing

The model fit indices verifying the degree of model fitting, and the results (CMIN/DF = 1.37,TLI = 0.98,CFI = 0.98 and RMSEA = 0.03) suggested that the hypothesized structural model exhibited a good fit (Anderson and Gerbing 1988). Therefore, it can be inferred that the extended TPB model demonstrated excellent fit. According to the path coefficients in the structural equation model (as shown in Table 5 and Fig. 2), there is a positive correlation between consumers’ attitudes towards green apparel and purchase intentions (H1: β = 0.539, p < 0.001), thereby supporting H1. Furthermore, social belonging (H2: β = 0.189, p < 0.001), social uniqueness (H3: β = 0.216, p < 0.001), aesthetic pleasure (H4: β =0.174, p < 0.001) and innovative perception (H5: β = 0.258, p < 0.001) all positively influence consumers’ attitudes of green apparel, thus providing support for hypotheses H2-H5. Moreover, POE has a positive impact on attitudes (H6: β = 0.168, p = 0.004), and social belonging (H7a: β = 0.315, p < 0.001), social uniqueness (H7b: β = 0.192, p < 0.001), aesthetic pleasure (H7c: β = 0.200, p < 0.001) and innovative perception (H7d: β = 0.185, p < 0.001) all have a significant positive influence on POE, therefore H6 and H7 are supported.

Table 5 Hypothesis testing results.
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Fig. 2
figure 2

Results from the structural model.

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Mediation effect

The mediation effects were examined through bootstrapping analysis with 5000 resamples using AMOS 28.0, an approach that directly tests the significance of indirect effects while accounting for sampling distribution asymmetry and controlling for Type I error (Preacher and Hayes 2008). The analysis yielded two key findings: first, it provided evidence for the mediating role of POE between consumers’ four needs for green apparel (NFR) and their attitudes; second, it revealed a significant chain mediation effect. The complete output includes standardized indirect effects (Effect), bootstrapped standard errors (Boot SE), 95% confidence intervals (BootLLCI-BootULCI), and significance values (z/p) for all mediation paths, with full results presented in Table 6. This analytical approach adheres to current methodological standards for mediation testing in structural equation modeling.

Table 6 The chain mediation effect of POE.
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Moderating effect

  1. (1)

    Statistical testing of moderating effect

    To rigorously examine the moderating role of ED on the attitude-purchase intention relationship, we implemented a hierarchical regression analysis with mean-centered variables (Hayes 2018). The analysis proceeded through three sequential models: Model 1 included only the main effect of attitude; Model 2 added the moderator (ED); and Model 3 introduced the interaction term (attitude × ED). The significant interaction effect (t = 5.003, p < 0.001) confirms that ED moderates the attitude–intention relationship. Moderation analysis results are presented in Table 7.

    Table 7 The moderation analysis of ED.
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  2. (2)

    Simple slope

    By comparing the slope sizes of the lines in Fig. 3, the analysis revealed that there is a significant difference (the slopes of the lines are different) in the impact of attitude on purchase intention at high, average, and low levels of ED. It indicated that ED exerts a substantial moderating influence on the relationship between attitudes and purchase intentions.

    Fig. 3
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    The moderating effect of ED.

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    The significant moderation effect and simple slope analysis results collectively support H8.

Discussion

This study combined the TPB model with the non-functional value module of the CVT to develop a new conceptual framework. The new model was designed within the specific context of fashion consumption, with a focus on Chinese consumers, and incorporated perceived social belonging, social uniqueness, aesthetic pleasure, and innovation perception into the original TPB model to investigate the antecedents of consumers’ green apparel purchase intentions. Furthermore, the study also examined the mediating effect of consumers’ POE and the moderating impact of green apparel’s ED.

Firstly, the findings validated a positive relationship between consumers’ attitudes towards green apparel and their purchase intentions, supporting H1. This aligns with the conclusions drawn in most previous related research (e.g., Kaur et al. 2023; Kumar et al. 2022).

Next, we will discuss the relationship between the four NFR and consumers’ attitudes towards green apparel. By specifying fashion consumption as a boundary condition, we corroborate the contextual fitness of the extended TPB, offering a new paradigm for sustainable fashion behavior research. Regarding H2, consumers’ perceived social belonging positively influences their attitudes towards green apparel, thereby confirming the support for H2. This outcome indicated that consumers seek to express their environmental identity through the choice of green clothing and be recognized and accepted by other environmentally conscious individuals. This social identity mechanism manifests more prominently in China’s collectivist cultural context, where group harmony and social approval strongly influence consumption decisions. Once their environmental identity is acknowledged, consumers’ behavior will be encouraged, and consumers can demonstrate their commitment to sustainable development through their purchasing behavior, thereby promoting a more favorable attitude towards green apparel. From another perspective, individuals’ behaviors are oriented towards achieving collective outcomes (Milne et al. 2019), and the collective self-esteem induced by social belonging positively influences consumers’ attitudes toward purchasing green apparel (Midilli and Tolunay 2021). Regarding H3, consumers’ perceived social uniqueness positively influences their attitudes towards green apparel, thus supporting H3. This can be elucidated by the distinctiveness of fashion consumption. If the pursuit of personal style is considered a reflection of fashion (Ki and Kim 2016), then in the context of fashion consumption, consumers seek to express their ‘uniqueness’ through the selection of clothing with distinctive external attributes. This tendency is particularly strong among Shanghai consumers, who use sustainable fashion to balance collectivist norms with self-expression. Eco-apparel allows them conform to environmental expectations while expressing personal style. Green apparel thus fulfills their desire for distinction, positively influencing purchase intentions. Regarding H4, consumers’ perceived aesthetic pleasure of green apparel positively influences consumers’ attitudes, providing support for H4. In the decision-making process for clothing purchases, aesthetic value plays a dominant role (Khare 2020), and a visually appealing product can significantly impact consumers’ purchasing decisions (Zhang et al. 2023; Blijlevens and Hekkert 2019). This suggests consumers are more concerned with the fashionable, attractive, and individualistic attributes of green apparel are not from the industry perspectives, instead, they seek emotional pleasure by obtaining the product’s external aesthetic values. Consumers believe that green apparel has a high aesthetic pleasure value, thereby leading to a positive attitude towards the products. Regarding H5, a positive correlation exists between consumers’ innovative perception of green apparel and their attitudes towards it, thus confirming H5. This suggests that consumers’ fashion consumption behavior is driven by a desire to demonstrate their creativity (Niinimäki 2010), and the unique fabric and manufacturing techniques of green apparel satisfy their desire for novelty and creativity, increasing their interest in eco-friendly clothing. However, this outcome is not consistent with the findings of the study from Pang et al. (2022). This may stem from variations in the research sample. In this study, the selected sample focused on Chinese consumers who were permanent residents of Shanghai. Shanghai Fashion Week’s emphasis on sustainable design reinforces local consumers’ perception of eco-apparel as innovative. Therefore, they are more inclined to perceive green apparel as a symbol of innovation and show more interests in it.

Third, consumers’ perceived social belonging, social uniqueness, aesthetic pleasure, and innovation perception positively influence their POE, and the mediation effect of POE between consumers’ four NFR and their attitudes towards green apparel is significant. Therefore, H6 and H7 are also supported. The mediation analysis reveals that consumers’ purchasing motivation based on their needs of social belong and uniqueness, as well as needs of aesthetic pleasure and innovation perception, increases their sense of ownership towards nature and the environmental awareness. This sense of a strong connection between consumers and the environment is established on personal values and preferences (Lim 2017), which have been further reinforced since 2020 through China’s Dual Carbon policy framework emphasizing individual environmental responsibility. This self-generated conscious perception leads to a more positive stance towards green apparel and a more enduring preference. In other words, when the POE triggered by the motivation of NFR is activated, this facilitates stimulation of subsequent green apparel consumption through attitudes.

Furthermore, the ED of products moderated the relation between consumers’ attitudes and their purchasing intentions of green apparel, thereby providing support for H8. This finding suggested that increasing the display and exposure of products can effectively help convert consumers’ attitudes towards green clothing into a willingness to purchase. As previously discussed, stereotypes and design-related stigma impact consumers’ attitudes towards eco-friendly clothing, resulting in their potential biases against green apparel, such as perceiving it as outdated or unfashionable. When green apparel is displayed more frequently through multiple channels, together with detailed information and descriptions to meet consumers’ needs for fashion, the potential biases are more likely to be mitigated or eliminated, thereby positively driving the transition from consumers’ attitudes to their purchase intentions.

Implication for management

Theoretical implications

This study makes three key contributions to the literature. First, it develops an innovative theoretical framework for green apparel consumption. Against the backdrop of the widely applied TPB model, this study draws upon the CVT framework to pioneer an integrated ‘NFR-POE-Intention’ model. This framework incorporates NFR into the TPB model, explaining the motivational mechanisms behind sustainable apparel purchases. The findings demonstrate that all four dimensions of NFR—social belonging, social uniqueness, aesthetic pleasure, and innovation perception—significantly influence consumer attitudes, revealing distinctive motivational drivers in fashion consumption. Consistent with Bhardwaj et al.’s (2023) findings on environmental behavior drivers, our study shows that personal motivational factors outweigh environmental concerns in predicting sustainable fashion purchases. Notably, while existing research predominantly focuses on general green consumption, as highlighted by Nilssen et al. (2019) and Ray and Nayak (2023), the lack of direct health impact distinguishes green apparel’s consumption motives from products like organic food that offer immediate health benefits, underscoring the necessity of product-specific research.

Second, it reveals a novel psychological mechanism underlying green apparel choices. This study is the first to identify POE as a crucial mediator in sustainable fashion research. The results indicate that consumers’ NFR enhances their POE, which in turn significantly improves purchase attitudes. Specifically, when green fashion satisfies needs like social belonging, it fosters stronger environmental attachment, and this psychological ownership ultimately translates into more positive purchase attitudes. This mechanism has been largely overlooked in previous studies. Aligning with Yin et al.’s (2022) findings on the primacy of human well-being in ethical consumption, our study reveals that the POE effect generated by fulfilling NFR (e.g., social uniqueness) exerts a stronger influence than mere environmental concern. This finding provides a novel understanding of sustainable consumption behavior for fashion.

Third, it positions ED as a critical moderator that, by alleviating design stigma, tightens the link between consumers’ attitudes and their green apparel purchase intentions. The experimental evidence robustly confirms this moderating effect. While earlier work has only explored the influence of material familiarity (Dangelico et al. 2022), this paper is the first to show that product exposure counteracts negative stereotypes about eco-clothing, thereby expanding the boundary conditions of the TPB model and offering new insights for bridging the attitude-behavior gap in sustainable fashion.

Practical implications

This study provides actionable insights for green apparel professionals across design, retail, and marketing domains. For design and production teams, the findings emphasize the need to prioritize consumers’ non-functional needs by developing products that allow for self-expression of environmental identity while maintaining individuality. This involves integrating sophisticated design with sustainable materials and advanced technologies to meet both aesthetic and innovation demands, while also implementing ‘prosumer’ strategies such as co-creation activities to enhance psychological ownership and product longevity, as demonstrated by Hirscher et al. (2018).

Retail professionals should recognize the complementary value of physical and digital channels in shaping consumer perceptions. Brick-and-mortar stores can optimize their impact through thematic displays that highlight environmental attributes while organizing merchandise by style and trends, coupled with interactive experiences that foster environmental connection and psychological ownership. For online platforms, intuitive navigation and clear categorization are essential to communicate sustainability values effectively while improving shoppers’ perceived behavioral control, with physical store locations further reinforcing positive attitudes through accessibility, as noted by Overdiek (2018).

The marketing implications highlight the need to move beyond environmental guilt appeals by instead emphasizing products’ distinctive values and emotional connections. Marketing strategies should showcase design details through immersive presentations and strategic collaborations to overcome stereotypes, while developing integrated campaigns that balance sustainability messaging with style and innovation narratives. This approach aligns with the study’s finding that psychological ownership and strategic product exposure can effectively transform consumer motivations into purchases, offering a more nuanced alternative to conventional sustainability marketing.

Conclusions

Currently, there is insufficient systematic research on the antecedents that influence consumers’ intentions to purchase green apparel, and specific consumption contexts are not being adequately considered. Our study addresses the research gap and incorporates consumers’ NFR for green apparel into the TPB model by considering the uniqueness of fashion consumption behavior, and develops an extended model for further investigation. We collected responses from 466 Chinese consumers who have been long-term residents in Shanghai, the fashion center of China, to address the three questions we posed. Concerning the first question, the study indicated that consumers’ attitudes towards green apparel are positively influenced by their perceived social belonging, social uniqueness, aesthetic pleasure, innovation perception, and POE, while consumers’ green apparel purchase intentions are positively affected by their attitudes. The conclusion suggested that the extended TPB model, incorporating NFR variables, can effectively elucidate consumers’ green apparel purchase intentions. This finding fills a critical gap in the existing literature, which has insufficiently integrated consumers’ NFR towards green apparel with the TPB theory in the analysis of green apparel consumption behavior. Regarding the second question, the research results demonstrated that all four NFR dimensions of green apparel have positive impacts on their POE, indicating that POE serves as a mediator between these requirements and attitudes. Specifically, when consumers derive NFR fulfillment (e.g., social belonging and uniqueness) from green apparel, it strengthens their POE and deepens their perceived connection with the environment, consequently enhancing positive attitudes toward sustainable fashion. This mechanism explains why symbolic product values consistently outweigh direct environmental considerations in fashion consumption contexts. For the third question, the results confirm the critical moderating role of ED in the attitude-intention relationship, a finding that extends the application boundaries of the traditional TPB model in fashion contexts. More specifically, ED facilitates the conversion of consumer attitudes into purchase intentions by reducing design-related stigmatized perceptions and enhancing product familiarity among consumers. The current literature has not adequately explored the impacts of POE and ED of green apparel on purchase intentions, and the conclusions of this paper offer significant perspectives on this field. In conclusion, the results of this study contribute to the body of literature on green apparel and consumer behavior, while also offering key perspectives for industry professionals to formulate effective strategies.

Limitation and future research

While this paper provides valuable theoretical and practical guidance, it is not without its limitations. Firstly, the adoption of a cross-sectional data collection method in this study may limit the wider applicability of the research findings. Moreover, this study does not employ a longitudinal approach, which limits its ability to illustrate how participants’ purchasing intentions evolve over time and with product changes. Secondly, this study was primarily conducted among Chinese consumers residing in Shanghai. Given the diverse interpretations of fashion across regions, it is yet to be determined whether the research findings can be applied to other areas in China or to different countries. Additionally, while demographic data (e.g., gender, age, education, income) were collected, this study did not examine their potential moderating effects on the proposed relationships, which could provide deeper insights into consumer segmentation. Furthermore, considering the wide range of green apparel categories, conducting surveys on different types may produce varying results (Dangelico et al. 2022). Therefore, another limitation of the study is its insufficient consideration of the various categories of green apparel. Lastly, our study did not account for the variations in consumption needs and behaviors arising from different cultural backgrounds, which requires further investigation.

In the future, we can further develop our study in the following directions. First, we can employ different types of research methods (such as a longitudinal approach) to collect data, to analyze how consumers’ purchase intentions may change over time. Then this study can be conducted in different regions of China to test the model’s stability and generalizability. The study could also be promoted in other countries to investigate the potential differences in consumer behavior across diverse markets. Future research could also explore how demographic variables (e.g., generational differences, income levels) interact with non-functional needs and psychological mechanisms in shaping sustainable fashion choices. Additionally, the categories of green apparel are varied, therefore, further research could categorize products, such as shirts, pants, and jackets, to examine the influence of specific types of green apparel on consumer behavior. Finally, future research could also explore the influence of consumers’ cultural factors, thereby developing a more comprehensive model to analyze the causal relationships associated with green apparel purchasing behavior.